Emissions rights

Figure 5.10 Normalized solid-state excitation (left) and emission (right) spectra of orange [Au2(dpim)2] " (solid line) and blue [Au2(dpim)2] " (dashed line), at room temperature. Reproduced with permission from [37]. Copyright (2003) American Chemical Society.

Figure 5.16 Excitation (left, emission monitored at 500 nm) and emission (right) spectra of [Au2(dcpm)2]X2 (X = CF3S03 and T), with kex at 280 nm, in degassed acetonitrile at room temperature, and emission spectrum of [Au2(dcpm)2](SCN)2, with at 280nm, in EtOH/MeOH (1 4 v/v) at 77 K. Reproduced with permission from [6b]. Copyright (2001) Wiley-VCH.

Fig. 10.9. Comparison of experimental data and 2D PIC simulations results for FWD and BWD maximum proton energy as a function of the target thickness (left), and peak proton energy shot-to-shot variation in UHC regime for FWD and BWD emission (right)...

Although people consume identical amounts of air and water pollution, individuals could differ in their contributions to the collective outcome if an emissions-rights market existed. On the other hand, bureaucratic regulations could attempt to duplicate the results of an emissions markef. Finally, class-action torts could serve as either a substitute or a supplement. 

The too-few scenario is analogous. If Congress created new emissions rights, all emitters would benefit from the lower prices that would result from the increased supply. But those benefits could not be confined to those firms that paid the lobbying costs. 

Private action will not optimally supply either the purchase of emissions rights or the creation of more emissions rights because it is difficult to restrict the benefits to those who pay—a fundamental... 

Second, regulations do not allow emissions reduction to vary across emitters. Instead, all emissions must be reduced by some fixed percentage or to a specified level. To achieve a given reduction in ambient exposure at lowest cost, however, requires that those emissions that are cheapest to reduce be cut back first. That would occur naturally in an emissions-rights market but not under command-and-control regulations that mandate specific reductions for each emitter. 

What role can torts play when damages are collectively consumed Simple torts are prone to the same free-rider problems that groups face when purchasing emissions rights. If a neighbor successfully sues a company to reduce its emissions, all those who consume the air or water will benefit regardless of whether they contributed to the lawsuit costs. Class-action suits partially remedy the free-rider problem by allowing one suit to represent the diffuse interests of all the beneficiaries. ... 

Under the current regulatory regime, the fulfillment of both these preferences is needlessly centralized and politicized. Even if the contraction or expansion of emissions rights is performed through the use of taxes rather than the voluntary fundraising efforts of groups, the country will benefit from a more transparent relationship between the costs and benefits. 

Emissions-rights solutions to public exposure disputes reduce conflict through the use of individual choice and differenfiafion. Once created, emissions rights would allow the environmentally concerned to purchase rights and bank them, thus reducing exposure. And firms that wished to increase emissions could expand the supply of rights by compensating exposed citizens. 

In my view, emissions rights are superior to bureaucratic regulation. Current command-and-control standards should be converted into equivalent tradeable emissions rights, and then common-law suits should handle disputes that result over their use. 

Figure 6 Emission anisotropy (left) and total emission (right) of M0S2 nanoparticles following 312-nm excitation. The detection wavelength was 425 nm.

Figure 1 NO X(v=0)-A(v =0) representative steady-state absorption (left) and emission (right) spectra. The solid lines correspond to MD simulations and the dots to experimental results.

Figure 10. Excitation (left) and emission (right) spectra optimized for aleurone tissue showing intensity differences between aleurone, endosperm, and pericarp tissues. The emission monochromator was set at 445 nm for excitation spectral scans and the excitation monochromator was set at 350 nm for emission spectral scans. RFI = relative fluorescence intensity. (From [29])...

Fig. 8 Absorption (left) and emission (right) spectra of 7a in chloroform solution (1 x 10 5 M, gray line), in the Sm3 phase at 98 °C (black dotted line) and in the SmA phase at 120 °C (black...

Figure 1 Electronic absorption (left) and emission (right) spectra of fac-...

FIGURE 26. (a) The absorption spectra of acetonitrile solutions of the yellow andcolorless (offset by 0.4 absorbance units) polymorphs of [(C6H11-NC)2AuI](PF6). The emission (right side) and excitation (left side) spectra of the colorless (b) and the yellow (c) polymorphs of [(C6H11-NC)2AuI](PF6). (Modified from Ref. 65.)... 

FIGURE 36- Excitation (left) and emissions (right) of solid 2D polymer 18 at 298 K. 

Fig. 24 The emission (right) and excitation spectra of crystals of [AuI C(NHMe)2 2]Cl-H2O at room temperature. The dashed line shows the emission spectrum from solid [AuI C(NHMe)2 2]Br H20. From [49]...

Fig. 31 The emission (right) and excitation (left) spectra of frozen 6.0 mM solutions of [(C6HiiNC)2Aui](PF6) in various solvents at 77K. The wavelength used to monitor the excitation profile is given below each excitation spectrum, and the wavelength used for excitation is shown below each emission spectrum. From [38]...

Fig. 17.8 (a) Synthetic scheme of a dapoxyl dye library (b) structure of hit compounds from dapoxyl library and excitation (left) and emission (right) spectra in different environments... 

Entwined with these ten lessons and unifying themes are two more general issues that are raised by the European experience. To what extent is the allocation of emission rights for CO2 different from that for other conventional pollutants, such as SO2 or NOx Is there some more general consideration that influences the choices when emission rights are distributed Or, to rephrase this second question more negatively, why are the many welfare-enhancing choices universally advocated by economists not chosen ... 

Czech Republic review of allocation proposals for cogen installations in the Netherlands study for the EU on how to allocate allowances within the EU ETS system evaluation of the Dutch allocation process a study on the allocation of CO2 emission rights in the post-Kyoto period. 

Figure 10. Histogram of Ar(II) 385-nm plasma emission (left) and Fe(l) 383.42-nm sampled species emission (right) as a function of time.

Figure 3. Absorption (left) and emission (right) spectra of Ir(ppy)2(bpy)+. Full line MeOH solution at room temperature. Dashed line MeOH/EtOH 1 4 at 77 K. From Ref. 99 with permission of American Chemical Society.

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