Elements in human blood

Verseick J, Cornells R. Normal levels of trace elements in human blood plasma or serum. Analytical Chimica Acta 1980 116 217-54. 

Stump IG, Caruthers J and D Auria JM (1977) Quantitative analysis of trace elements in human blood and plasma by energy disperse X-ray fluorescence. Clin Biochem 10 127. 

A radiochemical procedure for the determination of twelve trace elements in human blood serum, including arsenic, after reactor irradiation at a thermal neutron flux of 4.3x1 o n cm s using the ko standardization method was recently developed with the... 

Van Renterghem, D., Cornelis, R.. Vanholder. R. (1992). Radiochemical determination of twelve trace elements in human blood serum. Anal. Chim. Acta 257,1-5. 

In vitro analyses are not limited by a maximum irradiation dose, and the high sensitivity for many elements and the absence of blank values makes NAA the preferred method for analysis of many types of biological samples at the ultratrace level of concentration. The insensitivity to contamination has proven particularly valuable for establishing normal concentrations of a number of elements in human blood, including As, Cr, Mn, Mo, V, etc. [21], and results by NAA serve as a reference for testing or verifying the reliability of other methods. 

Inagaki, K., and Haraguchi, H. (1997). Rare earth elements in human blood serum as determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Chem. i.e ., p. 775. 

Indeed, a bDNA assay for diagnosis of African trypanosomiasis was developed and compared with buffy coat microscopy for detection of T brucei in human blood samples (Harris etal., 1996). Two repetitive DNA sequences found only in the T. brucei complex, a 177-bp satellite repeat and the ribosomal mobile element, were selected as targets in the bDNA assay. The assay used the standard bDNA components capture probes, target probes, amplifier molecules, and alkaline phosphatase-labeled probes. Various blood fractions and sample preparation methods were examined. Ultimately, buffy coat samples resulted in the highest sensitivity. Although typanosomes do not infect leukocytes, they cosediment with them. 

The most numerous of the cellular elements in the blood are the erythrocytes (red blood cells). On average, there are 5 million red blood cells per microliter (pi) of blood, or a total of about 25 to 30 trillion red blood cells in the adult human body. The percentage of the blood made up of red blood cells is referred to as hematocrit. An average hematocrit is about 45% (42% females, 47% males). As such, the viscosity of the blood is determined primarily by these elements. 

There are many examples of relatively straightforward use of ICP-MS for the analysis of biological fluids. Antimony has been measured in blood after a 14 1 dilution [236]. Cesium serum levels were found to be elevated in patients with alcohol dementia but not in Alzheimer s disease patients [237]. Cobalt levels in rat serum depended on the form of cobalt [238] ingested. Bismuth levels were measured in human blood and urine by using a direct injection nebulizer [239]. Lead was measured in the blood and blood plasma of smelter workers and the general population [240]. The measurement of trace elements in serum by ICP-MS has been compared to results from neutron activation analysis and proton-induced x-ray emission [241]. Semiquantitative analysis can also be used to obtain a rapid screening of samples [242]. 

The principle of the isotope dilution analysis (IDA) is described in Section 6.4. Due to its advantages as a definitive and accurate analytical method for the determination of element concentration via isotope ratio measurements, IDA is being increasingly applied in mass spectrometry, especially in ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS as one of the most frequently used techniques. For example, the isotope dilution technique is employed in species analysis in biological systems, " e.g., for the determination of mercury species in tuna material,or in aquatic systems. Further applications of the isotope dilution technique are the determination of selenomethionine in human blood serum by capillary HPLC-ICP (ORC) MS ° or sulfur speciation in gas oil, diesel or heating fuel by LA-ICP-MS. Evans and co-workers have reported on the high accuracy analysis of sulfur in diesel fuel by IDA. ICP-SFMS has been employed for Si species analysis in biological or clinical samples and... 

Horvat M, Stegnar A, Byme R, et al. 1988. A study of trace elements in human placenta, blood, and hair from the Yugoslav central Adriatic. In Braetter P, Schramel P, eds. Trace elements-analytical chemistry in medicine and biology. Berlin W. de Guyter and Co., 243-250. 

Versieck, J. and Vanballenberghe, L. (1985). Determination of arsenic and cadmium in human blood serum and packed cells, in Mills, C.F., Bremer, J. and Chesters, J.K. (Editors), Trace elements in man and animals - TEMA 5, p. 650, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal. 

Gardiner, P.E.. Stoeppler, M. and Nurnberg, H.W. (1984b). The Speciation of Albumin in Human Blood Serum. In Bratter, P. and Schramel, P. (eds). Trace Element Analytical Chemistry in Medicine and Biology, 3, 301. Walter de Gruyter Co.. Berlin-New York. 

PIXE, being an ion-beam based trace-element technique, is capable of analyzing at a lateral resolution of micrometres (Malmqvist, 1986). This has been used, for example, in a study of mercury migration in teeth with amalgam fillings (Lindh and Tveit, 1980). In a more recent investigation, trace element profiles in human blood cells were determined by microPIXE (Johansson and Lindh, 1987). 

In mammals, arsenic intake derives from food and drinking water, inspired air and absorption through the skin. The chemical form of arsenic and its solubility affect the absorption of the element in mammals and its transfer into the bloodstream. According to Leonard (1991), the normal arsenic content in human blood is about 4 ng/ml. However, an average arsenic value of 7.9 ng/ml and a range of 0.4-70.5 ng/ml were reported by Minoia et al. (1990), who analyzed blood samples of 470 healthy Italians. 

Jurgensen H, Behne D. 1977. Variations in trace element concentrations in human blood serum in the normal state investigated by instrumental neutron activation analysis. Journal of Radioanalytical... 

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