Electric field pulse technique

Application of Electric Field Pulse Techniques 96 Supplementary Reading 97... 

Another chemical relaxation method that can be used to determine the kinetics of fast reactions on soil constituents is the electric field pulse technique. This technique was developed by Hachiya et al. (1980) to study the kinetics of I03 adsorption and desorption on Ti02 and by Sasaki et al. (1983) to investigate ion-pair formation on the surface of a-FeOOH. Excellent review articles on electric field methods are found in DeMaeyer (1969), Hemmes (1979), and Eyring and Hemmes (1986). 

Hachiya et al. (1980) and Sasaki et al. (1983) appear to be the only researchers who have applied electric field pulse techniques to the study of kinetics of soil constituent reactions. In the latter study, ion-pair formation... 

Sasaki, M., Morlya, M. Yasunaga, T., and Astumian, R. D. (1983). A kinetic study of ion-pair formation on the surface of a-FeOOH in aqueous suspensions using the electric field pulse technique. J. Phys. Chem. 87, 1449-1453. 

The relaxation times for the complex formation of Li+ and Na+ with murexide have been determined. In these studies the electric field pulse technique was used, which has a resolution time of about 30 nanoseconds. The method is described in detail elsewhere 15). Fig. 10 shows a t q)ical relaxation curve for the Na-murexide reaction. The effect for K-murexide complex formation (requiring higher concentration, due to the lower stability constant) was already beyond the resolution of this method. 

A number of soil chemical phenomena are characterized by rapid reaction rates that occur on millisecond and microsecond time scales. Batch and flow techniques cannot be used to measure such reaction rates. Moreover, kinetic studies that are conducted using these methods yield apparent rate coefficients and apparent rate laws since mass transfer and transport processes usually predominate. Relaxation methods enable one to measure reaction rates on millisecond and microsecond time scales and 10 determine mechanistic rate laws. In this chapter, theoretical aspects of chemical relaxation are presented. Transient relaxation methods such as temperature-jump, pressure-jump, concentration-jump, and electric field pulse techniques will be discussed and their application to the study of cation and anion adsorption/desorption phenomena, ion-exchange processes, and hydrolysis and complexation reactions will he covered. 

One can divide relaxation methods into those that are either transient or stationary. Transient methods include temperature-, pressure-, and concentration-jump and electric-field pulse techniques. With these, tht... 

Of all the transient relaxation methods, the electric-field pulse technique can be used to measure the fastest reaction rates (Table 3-1, 10 -10 s). 

It has been found that adsorption/desorption of anions such as Cl and CIO4 on soil constituents is very rapid. In fact, reequilibrium is too rapid to be observed using p-jump relaxation. Fortunately, the electric-field pulse technique can be used for such systems. This method was employed by Sasaki et al. (1983) to study CI and CIO4 adsorption on goethite. Two relaxations on the order of microseconds were observed in acidified aqueous suspensions of a-FeOOH with either NaCl or NaClO4. The fast relaxation was dependent on the applied electric field intensity and was attributed to a physical diffusion phenomenon. The slower relaxation was independent of the applied electric field intensity and was interpreted in terms of the association/dis-sociation reaction of counter ions with protonated surface hydroxyl groups as ion pairs... 

The kinetic measurements were carried out in the aqueous suspension of y-Al203 containing PbCNOg) at 20°C. A typical relaxation curve obtained by means of the pressure-jump technique with conductivity detection is shown in Figure 1(a) in which the electric conductivity increases with the pressure. As seen from Figure 1(a), at the beginning of the relaxation a very fast change in conductivity was also found. To resolve this, measurements were performed by the electric field pulse technique. 

Linear Dichroism. In this technique, the DNA molecules are aligned either by an applied electric field pulse or in a flow gradient. The orientation of the aromatic residues of the metabolite model compounds bound to the DNA (either covalently or non-covalently) relative to the orientation of the DNA bases is probed utilizing linearly polarized light. The linear dichroism A A can be either negative or positive, and is defined as... 

Apart from the temperature-jump technique, other relaxation methods that have been used are those of ultrasonic absorption" " and electric-field pulse. Another technique that has been used for some of the more slowly included guest molecules is that of stopped-flow. ... 

To study rapid reactions, traditional batch and flow techniques are inadequate. However, the development of stopped flow, electric field pulse, and particularly pressure-jump relaxation techniques have made the study of rapid reactions possible (Chapter 4). German and Japanese workers have very successfully studied exchange and sorption-desorption reactions on oxides and zeolites using these techniques. In addition to being able to study rapid reaction rates, one can obtain chemical kinetics parameters. The use of these methods by soil and environmental scientists would provide much needed mechanistic information about sorption processes. 

Methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), electron spin resonance (ESR), infrared (IR), and laser raman spectroscopy could be used in conjunction with rate studies to define mechanisms. Another alternative would be to use fast kinetic techniques such as pressure-jump relaxation, electric field pulse, or stopped flow (Chapter 4), where chemical kinetics are measured and mechanisms can be definitively established. 

Another consideration in choosing a kinetic method is the objective of one s experiments. For example, if chemical kinetics rate constants are to be measured, most batch and flow techniques would be unsatisfactory since they primarily measure transport- and diffusion-controlled processes, and apparent rate laws and rate coefficients are determined. Instead, one should employ a fast kinetic method such as pressure-jump relaxation, electric field pulse, or stopped flow (Chapter 4). 

The high time resolution of the electric field pulse device turned out to be of advantage for the study of nigericin 36). Unfortunately, this technique could not be applied to the electrically neutral macrocyclic compounds, since it is based on the presence of a dissociation field effect. However, nigericin and murexide do give a dissociation field effect. The rate of complex formation between Na+ and nigericin was found to be as high as that for murexide, i. e. diffusion controlled. 

For reactions that occur on time scales < 15 s, none of the techniques given above is satisfactory. To measure these reactions, one can employ relaxation methods (Table 3-1), such as pressure-jump, temperature-jump, concentration-jump, and electric-field pulse (Bernasconi, 1976 Gettins and Wyn-Jones, 1979 Bernasconi, 1986 Sparks, 1989, 1990). 

The objective of this chapter is to discuss the theory of chemical relaxation and its application to the study of soil chemical reaction rates. Transient relaxation techniques including temperature-jump (t-jump), pressure-jump (p-jump), concentration-jump (c-jump) and electric-field pulse will be discussed both as to their theoretical basis and experimental design and application. Application of these techniques to the study of several soil chemical phenomena will be discussed including anion and cation adsorp-tion/desorption reactions, ion-exchange processes, hydrolysis of soil minerals, and complexation reactions. 

The above technique is fine for electric-field pulse experiments where there is no color change associated with the electric-field-induced ionization. If a color change is operational, one may use spectrophotometric detection (Ilgenfritz, 1966). 

Chemical relaxation theory was presented in this chapter, and a number of transient relaxation techniques including t-jump, p-jump, c-jump, and electric-field pulse were discussed. The application of these methods to important soil chemical processes was also covered including anion and cation adsorption/desorption phenomena, hydrolysis of soil minerals, ion-e.xchangc processes, and complexation reactions. Relaxation methods have... 

There are two electrical methods used for treating biologicals in water electrochemical and pulsed electric field. Both techniques require generating an electrical field that either directly affects the microorganisms or indirectly creates oxidizing species that affect the microorganisms. They can create mutagenic compounds in the water, have cathodes that tend to foul, and lack any residual effects. Neither has been extensively studied for applications with membranes. ... 

A sensitive approach for the analysis of molecular structures is the measurement of rotation time constants and optical anisotropy coefficients by relaxation electrooptical methods.The experimental procedure used for electrooptical investigations is relatively simple samples are subjected to electric field pulses, and the response due to field-induced alignment or field-induced reactions is recorded by spectrophotometric techniques. In the dichroism experiments, the absorbance of polarized light is measured under electric field pulses. The measured quantity, linear dichroism (LD), means that anisotropic absorption of plane or linearly polarized light has taken place. 

Fig. 9.8 (a) Energy-level diagram of Rh atom, and laser transitions used for selective ionization of this atom. Three dye-laser pulses raise 10% of Rh atoms to a Rydberg state with an effective principal quantum number of n fs 15 20 ns later, the highly excited atoms are ionized with an efficiency close to unity by means of an electric field pulse, (b) The first data on rhodium concentrations at the K/T boundary (in the Sumbar-SM-4 section, Turkmenia) obtained by the ultrasensitive laser photoionization spectroscopy technique. The maximum Rh concentration in the sample studied was 24.2 ng g . The Rh/Ir ratio was 0.34 0.06, which is close to the cosmic ratio of these elements. (Prom Bekov et al. 1988.)... 

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