Early instrument development

The differences between laboratory and on-line instruments are huge to the point where often one does not see that they are related. What are some of the commonalities and differences between an on-line analyzer and a laboratory piece of equipment Usually the name is the same. The laboratory is a temperature-controlled, reasonably safe environment with instrumentation operated by trained chemists. In contrast, the process is frequently outdoors so temperature control is what Mother Nature gives you. Many processes also 

While one cannot expect these organizations to give specific answers, they can be very useful in finding the answer you need. If the problem can be exposed to the public, both graduate students and faculty are interested in working on your problem. Proposed solutions may sound very strange and may not have industrial merit however, these 

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This chapter deals with two main issues Why PAC is done and how it is done. The history of PAC is discussed from the perspective of its early origins in petrochemicals. Further, aspects on early instrument development are presented. Why PAC is done is easy to answer to increase the bottom line via improved production efficiency. The benefits of PAC have already been mentioned - all of which impact a company s bottom line. How... 

Early Instrumental Developments for Time-resolved Microscopy with LLBs... 

Even before a new organic substance has its structure determined, it must be purified by separating it from solvents and all contaminants. Purification was an enormously time-consuming, hit-or-miss proposition in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but powerful instruments developed in the last few decades now simplify the problem. 

Microprobe analysis was initially developed at the University of Paris by R. Castaing, who fitted an X-ray spectrometer to a converted electron microscope in the early 1950s, and the first commercial instrument, developed in France by the Cameca company, appeared in 1958. The following years saw commercial instruments produced in the UK, USA and Japan. 

Despite these caveats, IR is an excellent tool for API process monitoring because of its chemical information content. This is particularly valuable in early-stage development when it can yield crucial information about unexpected reaction intermediates and side reactions and therefore lead directly to a more robust process. Commercial instrumentation is widely available for this purpose [78] and development of cheaper, smaller and more rugged instrumentation continues apace [79]. For example, a miniaturised mid-infrared spectrometer and... 

The work reported in this chapter was conducted in 1971, at the Engineering Physics Laboratory of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. This research was performed as part of the ESCA instrument development program active at that time, and was presented by Jansson and Davies (1974). An example of a deconvolved polyester spectrum obtained in the early work appeared in the review article by Herglotz and Suchan (1975). 

I said at the beginning of this book that flow cytometry is currently moving in two directions at once Technological advances provide, in one direction, increasingly rapid, sensitive, complex, but precarious analysis and, in the other direction, increasingly stable, fool-proof, and automated capabilities. Thirty years ago, all flow cytometry was at the complex, but precarious level of development. Now, many of those early precarious developments have been incorporated into routine cytometers, and new techniques are appearing in research instruments. Over the next few years, this progression will continue ... 

Quadrupole mass spectrometers were used in both the early ICP-MS instrument development research and the first commercial instruments. To date, quadrupole-based ICP-MS instruments continue to be predominant. During the last several years, ICP ion sources have been coupled with mass spectrometers of several different designs, including double-sector, single-sector, time-of-flight, ion trap, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance. 

Its successor, used for all early instruments designed to measure electrical currents, and still used in ammeters and voltmeters today, is the d Arsonval144 galvanometer (Fig. 10.28) developed by d Arsonal and Deprez145 in the 1880s, which consists of a permanent magnet B0/ within... 

In early instruments, the detectors consisted of a series of half rings [143,144] (Figure 10.8) so that a matrix equation developed. Sliepcevich and co-workers [145,146] inverted this equation to obtain the particle size distribution. The equation was solved by assuming the distribution fitted a standard equation and carrying out an iteration to obtain the best fit. A matrix inversion was not possible due to the large dynamic range of the coefficients and experimental noise that could give rise to non-physical results. An inversion procedure that overcame these problems was developed by Philips [147] and Twomey [148] that eliminated the need to assume a shape for the distribution curve. 

Davis Baird received his Ph.D. from Stanford University, and is currently associate professor and chair of the department of philosophy at the University of South Carolina. He comes to an interest in the philosophy of chemistry through his interest in scientific instrumentation, particularly instrumentation developed in analytical chemistry. He has a personal stake in analytical instrumentation—he is the son of Walter Baird, founder in 1936 of Baird Associates, one of the early developers of analytical instrumentation. He currently is working on a book on the history of Baird Associates. 

The limitations of early instrumentation were extreme. Engineers were first able to get on-line measurements for only the simplest process parameters - initially only temperature and pressure. As interest in on-line measurements grew, various manufacturers developed instrumentation for chemical process streams. Soon, instrumentation was available for simple infrared measurements, water determination, simple ultraviolet measurements, density, and viscosity. The spectroscopic instruments (1R, UV, etc) of this era were simplistic devices similar to colorimeters that used filters to provide the appropriate frequency or range of frequencies to quantitate one or more components of the process stream. 

Woodward began his career as instructor at Harvard in autumn 1937 and remained there until he died. He is renowned for brilliant syntheses of natural products. With his first student, William von Eggers Doering, Woodward published in 1944 what was considered at the time the first total synthesis of quinine. He was an early advocate of instrumentation, developing useful rules for ultraviolet spectroscopy. The 28-year-old Woodward employed combustion calorimetry to successfully argue against Sir Robert Robinson s... 

By the early sixties, the various aspects of magnetic resonance that might be exploited in the study of adsorption and catalysis had been fairly well delineated, with one exception. Improvements in instrumentation, developments in theory, and better correlations with other experiments were to come, but, except for the applications of the NMR chemical shift, substantial beginnings had been made. 

Different techniques for the study of shear rheology of interfacial layers have been developed over the years however, they are mostly suited for liquid/gas inter faces. The early instruments were constructed to measure the interfacial shear viscosity under constant shear conditions. In more complex systems, nonlinear effects, shear-rate dependencies of the viscosity, and viscoelastic properties are... 

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