Disease control programmes

Brazil is one of the few countries in the Americas that has applied insecticides for the control of visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar). Since the areas of transmission often overlapped with those for Chagas disease, the insecticides used and areas sprayed were determined by the Chagas disease control programme. With the reduction in applications for Chagas disease control, the number of cases of kala-azar has... 

Except for malaria, only limited information is available on the quantities of insecticides used for particular vector-borne disease control programmes and other public health purposes, but it has been observed that large amounts are being used for dengue vector control. 

WHOPES functions in close collaboration with national disease and pest control programmes and national pesticide registration authorities, many international and regional organizations and institutions concerned with pesticide management, legislation and regulation, research institutions and with industry. 

World Health Organization (2008). Epidemic and pandemic alert and response. WHO Programme on Disease Control in Humanitarian Emergencies (DCE) (http //www.who.int/csr/en/2008). 

The extracts also showed useful effects at lower concentrations. It was observed that 20-40% of the larvae treated with the low concentration of the extract successfully pupated but often died before emerging into adults. This is no disadvantage for malaria control programmes since it is the adult Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes that are the prime vectors of the disease. 

In practice, the distinction between these two definitions is somewhat blurred, because for many pest or disease problems a combination of measures is taken in the attempt to achieve control, including both chemical and nonchemical components. The term integrated pest management (IPM) is often used to describe such combination treatments, particularly those departing from the use of chemicals. However, it must be emphasised that the components of the IPM system need to be closely defined for each pest-control situation, and thus IPM in itself does not offer a universal panacea for alternatives to chemicals. The term is merely a loose generic descriptor of a wide variety of multicomponent control programmes. 

There is the potential to develop a protective vaccine/immunization programme for each and every infectious disease. Whether or not such vaccines are developed and deployed is related to the severity and economic impact of the disease upon the eommunity as well as the effects upon the individual. Principles of immunity and of the produetion and quality control of immunological products are discussed in Chapters 14 and 15, respeetively. 

The application of vaccine technology forms a core element of modern medicinal endeavour. It plays a central role in both human and veterinary medicine and represents the only commonly employed prophylactic (i.e. preventative) approach undertaken to control many infectious diseases. The current (annual) global vaccine market stands at in excess of US 3 billion. Immunization programmes, particularly those undertaken on a multinational scale, have served to reduce dramatically the incidence of many killer/disabling diseases, such as smallpox, polio and tuberculosis. 

Conversely, if demonstration of efficacy is more critical than establishing safety, for example, in Alzheimer s disease, then placebo-controlled studies are appropriate. Although the studies may include fewer patients, the number of studies may be approximately the same as for a hypertension programme. 

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