Detonation diamonds

Komarov, W.F. Petrov, E.A. Sakovitch, G.V. Klimov, A.V. Ultra dispersed detonation diamond properties and applications. In Advances in New Diamond Science and Technology, Sato, K., Fujimori, N., Fukunaga, O., Kamo, M., Okushi, H., Yoshikawa, M., Eds. MYU Tokyo, 1994. 

From the detonation of carbon-rich explosives, diamonds with primary particles measuring about 5 nm can be obtained. Electron microscopic examination also reveals graphitic portions of the material that partly exist as onion-hke structures or as multilayered graphitic shells on the diamond particles (Section 5.2.2). Hence, it seems reasonable to assume that a complete graphitization of detonation diamond leads to onion-like particles. 

Figure 5.1 Detonation diamond as powder (a), as unstable suspension in water (center) and as completely deagglomerated dispersion in water (b).

StiU many appUcations and experiments require not only the removal of impurities, but also a breaking up of the very stable agglomerates of detonation diamond. The primary particles measuring 5 nm across had already been mentioned (Section... 

Figure 5.20 Electron energy loss spectra (EELS) of detonation diamond (a) low-loss region, (b) core-loss region ( Taylor Francis 1997).

Figure 5.25 ESR-spectra of pristine detonation diamond (bottom) and of the same after the removal of graphitic carbon (top) ( Elsevier 2000).

A. Krueger, M. Ozawa, G. Jarre, Y. Liang, J. Stegk, and L. Lu, Deagglomeration and functionahsation of detonation diamond, Physica Status Solidi (A) Applications and Materials Science, 204 (9), 2881-2887,2007. 

A. Krueger, J. Stegk, Y. Liang, L. Lu, and G. Jarre Biotinylated nanodiamond Simple and efficient functionalization of detonation diamond. Langmuir, 24 (8), 4200-4204, 2008. 

Table 8.3 Dielectric permittivity (e) of detonation diamond nano-powder [103]...

After 1988, when the first syntheses of the detonation diamond were reported in the USA and the USSR [253, 254], the structure and properties of this material... 

To the authors knowledge, studies of detonation diamond in the USSR were going on since 1960 s but were kept secret. However, we believe that in the absence of any open publications prior to 1988, any attempts to re-establish the sdentiflc priority now are pointless... 

The most frequently employed starting explosives in indnstrial-scale production of diamond by detonation synthesis are, as a rnle, trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexogen (also called RDX = Research Department Explosive), with detonation performed in a water medium to reach a higher productivity. The most complicated stage in the industrial process is chemical isolation of NC diamond from the detonation carbon prodnced in an explosion, which is actually a mixture of micro- and nanoparticles of graphite, varions forms of sp -hybridized carbon and impurities originally contained in the explosive itself, and construction materials of the synthesis vessel. For details of the technology used in detonation diamond synthesis, the reader can be referred to Ref. 19 and Section 9.23.2 for the structure of the detonation diamond particles, their properties, and applications. 

Detonation diamond Fullerenes Post modification through Suzuki coupling [217]... 

Figure 33 shows spectra of natural, possibly interstellar, nanodiamond from the Or-gueil meteorite compared to a synthetic detonation diamond. They are very similar in displaying some p -like diamondlike character, which typically is manifested in Raman intensity at around 1330 cm as well as a sp -like disordered character around 1600 cm" the latter was attributed to the relatively large proportion of carbon atoms in disordered structural arrangements at the surface compared to those ordered inside these nanometer-sized minerals [51]. 

Figure 33 Raman spectra of interstellar nanodiamond from the Orgueil meteorite (above) and from a detonation diamond (below) both reveal a diamondlike sp character around 1330 cm and a disordered graphitelike sp character around 1600 cm attributed to surface effects. (After Ref. 51.)... 

In Chapter 2, the development of composite materials based on improved nanodiamonds is reported by P. Ya Detkov, V. A. Popov, V. G. Kuhchikhin and S. I. Chukhaeva. The authors describe methods for improving the quality of diamond nanopowders obtained by detonation synthesis, as well as some commercial applications of nanodiamonds. The authors prove that the synthetic detonation diamond is a promising material that can be used in many fields. Of special interest are its applications in compos ite materials both with a metal and polymer matrix. Commercial production of ultradisperse diamonds (or nanodiamonds) has been developed, and it is synthesized on a scale sufficient for particular industries. 

Due to its unique physicochemical characteristics, diamond is widely used in industry. Interest in fabrication of artificial diamond crystals, specifically, those obtained by detonation transformation of explosives, was already evinced in the 1940s. Attention was paid to the fact that thermodynamic conditions for the existence of carbon as diamond crystals are realized in the zone of the detonation complex. Nanodiamond powder synthesis and the properties of synthesized materials were studied in numerous works performed at various research centers [1-11]. In subsequent decades, many attempts were undertaken to develop detonation diamond technology. One of these technologies was developed and patented by the Russian Federal Nuclear Center-Zababakhin All-Russian Research Institute of Technical Physics (RFNC-VNIITF). 

The explosives most frequently used at present in the synthesis of detonation diamonds are mixtures of trinitrotoluene and hexogen. Trinitrotoluene is an explosive with a high negative oxygen balance. Explosive decomposition of trinitrotoluene releases a large amount of free carbon. Therefore, trinitrotoluene is the major source of carbon for the diamond phase in trinitrotoluene-hexogen mixtures. Hexogen (trimethylenetrinitramine) is a more potent explosive than trinitrotoluene and is used to maintain the detonation parameters of the mixture at a required level. 

Diamond particles formed in the detonation synthesis ate 2-6 nm in size. Particles of detonation diamond have a cubic lattice with lattice parameter a = 0.3575 nm (in natural diamond, a = 0.3566 nm). Due to the small size of particles, the detonation diamonds are called ultradisperse diamonds (UDD) or nanodiamonds. 

A commercial technology of ultradisperse detonation diamond powder (technical specifications TU 2-037-677-94) has been developed and its production has been organized at the Russian Federal Nuclear Center-Zababakhin All-Russian Research Institute of Technical Physics (RFNC-VNIITF), Snezhinsk, Chelyabinsk Region. The major physicochemical parameters of this product are given in Table 2.2. 

Table 2.2 The major physicochemical parameters of ultradisperse detonation diamond powder produced at the Russian Federal Nuclear Center-Zababakhin All-Russian Research Institute of Technical Physics, Snezhinsk, Chelyabinsk Region.

Ultrasmall size of primary particles, specificity of stracture formation processes, extremely high dispersity and specific surface, coordination unsaturation of surface atoms of carbon, and the presence of functional groupings on them, all these significantly distinguish detonation diamonds from natural diamonds and static-synthesis diamonds. As the detonation method of UDD synthesis developed, it became clear that ultradisperse diamonds could have not only traditional but also absolutely new applications. 

Thus, synthetic detonation diamond is a promising material that can be used in many fields. Of special interest are its applications in composite materials both with metal and polymer matrix. Commercial production of UDD has been developed, and it is synthesized on a scale sufficient for particular industries. 

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