Cost contribution

In selecting a flame retardant for a given appHcation, the cost contribution of the flame retardant to the final polymer compound must be taken into account. Assessment of cost should be done on a cost per volume basis rather than a simple cost per weight basis. 

The pricing of carbon black feedstocks depends on their alternate market as residual fuel oil, especially that of high sulfur No. 6 fuel oil. The actual price is deterrnined by the supply/demand relationships for these two markets. Feedstock cost contributes about 60% of the total manufacturing cost. The market price of carbon black is strongly dependent on the feedstock cost as shown in Figure 8. 

Multiple-factor methods include the cost contributions for each given activity, which can be added together to give an overall factor. This factor can be used to multiply the total cost of dehvered equipment X (Ce(j)del lo produce an estimate of the total fixed-capital investment either for grass-roots or for battery-hmit plants. The costs may be divided into four groups ... 

In dividing cost into its contributing elements the first distinction to be made is that some cost elements depend upon the number of products produced annually, whereas others do not. For example, the cost contribution of the plastic is the same regardless of the number of items produced, unless the... 

This problem was formulated as an MILP with the overall objective of minimizing total annualized cost of the refinery and maximizing the added value from the PVC petrochemical network. Maximizing the added value of the petrochemical network is appropriate since the feedstock costs contribute to the majority of the total cost. For instance, the feedstock cost of an ethylene plant contributes to more than 87% of the total cost when naphtha is used and 84% and 74% when propane and ethane are used, respectively (NBK MENA Equity Research, 2007). 

Each debt item in M divided by the total debt times the after-tax yield to maturity equals the after-tax weighted average cost contributing to the cost of capital. 

However, the retention of activity upon reuse was poor and undesirable side-activities were present. Thus the step forward was to extract the enzyme and purify it free of penicillin lactamase which destroys antibiotic activity, and to then immobilise the enzyme in an active and stable form so as to allow efficient reuse (ca. 1000 cycles), thereby making the catalyst cost contribution to overall process costs quite small. 

A solar photovoltaic system contains, in addition to solar cells and module(s), an array structure to support the modules, power-conditioning circuitry for control and modification of the output, and a means of storing energy if required. All elements beyond the module are referred to as balance-of-system (BOS) components. The cost of BOS items is nominally about equal to the cost of the PV module. However, the BOS fractional cost contribution can vary from one- to two-thirds of the total installed cost of a system, depending on application. 

Thus, by 2025, savings in terms of development costs could be similar to those observed in the past. These research efforts to reduce storage costs contribute to reinforcing the competitiveness of gas supply and consequently to satisfy the end user. 

It should also be noted that the compressor costs together with other operating costs typically make a minor part of total discounted lifecycle cost as the major cost contribution is related to pipeline investment, which is a sunk cost as the pipeline cannot be recovered or converted. 

The difficulty that arises in the utility targeting task is due to two sources. First, the requirement of a strict pinch assumes that energy is the dominant cost contribution and hence lower total cost solutions in which heat is allowed to be transferred across the pinch (i.e., pseudo-pinch case) may be excluded from consideration, Second, the specification of HRAT requires iterating between several values of HRAT to determine the optimal network and hence needs a significant amount of time and effort. 

Figure 19.9 Qualitative plot of cost contributions to HFCS production at different operating temperatures (Roels, 1979).

Estimated fixed costs i.e., operating labor, maintenance, administration, insurance, and capital charge, are shown in Table IV. Except for the capital charge, the fixed costs contribute relatively little to the total hydrogen cost. The annual capital charge used in this analysis is 17% of the total installed plant cost. This is equivalent to a simple before-tax payout of slightly less than six years. 

The widespread application of enantioselective catalysis, be it with chiral metal complexes or enzymes, raises another issue. These catalysts are often very expensive. Chiral metal complexes generally comprise expensive noble metals in combination with even more expensive chiral ligands. A key issue is, therefore, to minimise the cost contribution of the catalyst to the total cost price of the product a rule of thumb is that it should not be more than ca. 5%. This can be achieved either by developing an extremely productive catalyst, as in the metachlor example, or by efficient recovery and recycling of the catalyst. Hence, much attention has been devoted in recent years to the development of effective methods for the immobilisation of metal complexes [130, 131] and enzymes [132]. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. 

Chemical plants require several types of labor. There is direct labor, consisting of operating labor to produce a chemical, and maintenance labor to maintain the process. There is also indirect labor, needed to operate and maintain facilities and services. Happel and Jordan [6] have pointed out that the contribution of labor costs to the product cost is small. But labor cost contributes to the cost of several oftier items, as shown in Table 2.1. When developing a new process, we can estimate the niunber of operators by visualizing the operations for the various... 

A review of the cost contributions in chromatography is presented in this section [73. These results emphasize the importance of optimizing the operating and design parameters in chromatography to minimize cost as well as the importance of solvent... 

The total cost is given by the sum of the cost contributions, in /h, for the solvent, packing media, system, labor and lost crude (Eq. (7.44)). 

Fig. 7.11. Cost contributions at two column saturation capacities packing, solvent, lost crude, labor and system, (a) 1000 mg/g, and (b) 500 mg/g. Absolute cost /g, cost component, % fractional cost.

Fig. 7.2. i. Cost contributions it two diffiisivitiL s packing, soivent. iost crude, labor and system ial I x H). and (b) I x 10 Absolute cost S/g. cost component. Vf I raetional cost. 

Since the begirming of civilization wood and biomass have been used for cooking. Still, today over 2 billion people cook badly on slow, inefficient wood stoves that waste wood, cause health problems and destroy our forests. Electricity, gas or kerosene are preferred for cooking - when they can be obtained However, they are costly, contribute to global warming, and depend on having a suitable infrastructure often not available in developing countries... 

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