Controlled radical polymerization vinyl chloride

Allyl radical is relatively stable due to the conjugation of a vinyl group with the carbon-centered radical. Allyl chloride and bromide (1-11, X = Cl, Br) were thus employed as initiators for controlled radical polymerization of styrene in conjunction with CuCl/ L-l and CuBr/L-1, respectively.161 The molecular weights agreed well with the calculated values assuming the formation of one living polymer chain per initiator and increased in direct proportion to monomer conversion. The MWDs were narrower with bromide than with chloride (MJMn 1.2 vs 1.3). 

An example of a commercial semibatch polymerization process is the early Union Carbide process for Dynel, one of the first flame-retardant modacryhc fibers (23,24). Dynel, a staple fiber that was wet spun from acetone, was introduced in 1951. The polymer is made up of 40% acrylonitrile and 60% vinyl chloride. The reactivity ratios for this monomer pair are 3.7 and 0.074 for acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride in solution at 60°C. Thus acrylonitrile is much more reactive than vinyl chloride in this copolymerization. In addition, vinyl chloride is a strong chain-transfer agent. To make the Dynel composition of 60% vinyl chloride, the monomer composition must be maintained at 82% vinyl chloride. Since acrylonitrile is consumed much more rapidly than vinyl chloride, if no control is exercised over the monomer composition, the acrylonitrile content of the monomer decreases to approximately 1% after only 25% conversion. The low acrylonitrile content of the monomer required for this process introduces yet another problem. That is, with an acrylonitrile weight fraction of only 0.18 in the unreacted monomer mixture, the low concentration of acrylonitrile becomes a rate-limiting reaction step. Therefore, the overall rate of chain growth is low and under normal conditions, with chain transfer and radical recombination, the molecular weight of the polymer is very low. 

Vinyl chloride polymerization occurs via an exothermic radical reaction. In fact, the reaction is approximately 25% more exothermic than polyethylene polymerization. The highly exothermic nature of the reaction and the strong molecular weight dependence on temperature make heat transfer, and its control, critical to the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride. 

Monomer and initiator must be soluble in the liquid and the solvent must have the desired chain-transfer characteristics, boiling point (above the temperature necessary to carry out the polymerization and low enough to allow for ready removal if the polymer is recovered by solvent evaporation). The presence of the solvent assists in heat removal and control (as it also does for suspension and emulsion polymerization systems). Polymer yield per reaction volume is lower than for bulk reactions. Also, solvent recovery and removal (from the polymer) is necessary. Many free radical and ionic polymerizations are carried out utilizing solution polymerization including water-soluble polymers prepared in aqueous solution (namely poly(acrylic acid), polyacrylamide, and poly(A-vinylpyrrolidinone). Polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl chloride), and polybutadiene are prepared from organic solution polymerizations. 

Homopolymerization. The free-radical polymerization of VDC has been carried out by solution, slurry, suspension, and emulsion methods. Slurry polymerizations are usually used only in the laboratory. The heterogeneity of the reaction makes stirring and heat transfer difficult consequently, these reactions cannot be easily controlled on a large scale. Aqueous emulsion or suspension reactions are preferred for large-scale operations. The spontaneous polymerization of VDC, so often observed when the monomer is stored at room temperature, is caused by peroxides formed from the reaction of VDC with oxygen, fery pure monomer does not polymerize under these conditions. Heterogeneous polymerization is characteristic of a number of monomers, including vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile. 

In the seeded emulsion polymerization of some monomers —e.g., styrene—it is possible to obtain final latexes with uniform, large particles by adjusting, during polymerization, the quantity of added emulsifier the formation of new particles is prevented by the limited amount of emulsifier. For vinyl chloride, limited emulsifier is not sufficient to prevent the formation of new particles in fact, to obtain a monodispersed latex, the surface of the particles seeded in a given water volume must be controlled. It is assumed that the growth of new nuclei is related either to the rate of formation of primary useful radicals or to the rate that these are taken by the surface of sized particles. 

The authors considered their description of a series of bulk and suspension polymerizations of vinyl chloride with various initiators as very satisfactory [17] with Q St 15. In spite of that, their approach has been criticized by Ugelstad who considers termination of growing radicals exclusively by mutual collisions to be very improbable [19], A large number of primary particles are formed in a short time interval, and many of these are then easily absorbed by the already solid flakes. Desorption of sorbed radicals has also to be considered. Radical distribution among the two phases should be controlled by these processes, especially at low conversion. 

Free radical polymerization of neat monomer in the absence of solvent and with only initiator present is called bulk or mass polymerization. Monomer in the liquid or vapor state is well mixed with initiator in a heated or cooled reactor as appropriate. The advantages of this method are that it is simple, and because of the few interacting components present, there is less possibility for contamination. However, vinyl-type polymerizations are highly exothermic so that control of the temperature of bulk polymerization may be difficult. Also, in the absence of a solvent viscosities may become very high toward the end of a polymerization, which could make stirring difficult, and add to the difficulty of heat removal from the system. The advantages of this system, however, are sufficiently attractive for this to be used commercially for the free radical polymerization of styrene, methyl methacrylate, vinyl chloride, and also for some of the polymerization processes of ethylene [7]. 

PVC is produced by polymerization of vinyl chloride by free-radical mechanisms, mainly in suspension and emulsion, but bulk and solution processes are also employed to some extent [11-14]. (The control of vinyl chloride monomer escaping into the atmosphere in the PVC production plant has become important because cases of angiosarcoma, a rare type of liver cancer, were found among workers exposed to the monomer. This led to setting of stringent standards by governments and modification of manufacturing processes by the producers to comply with the standards.)... 

Since the transfer reaction rate is much larger than the termination reaction rate, the degree of polymerization is practically independent of the initiator concentration. So, industrially, the degree of polymerization is controlled by variation of the polymerization temperature. The monomer free radicals start the polymerization of vinyl chloride and produce unsaturated end groups... 

Emulsion polymerizations are carried out in one liquid phase dispersed within another. The monomer or a solution of the monomer is dispersed with the aid of an emulsifier in the homogeneous phase and polymerized, for example, with free radical initiators. The product is a colloidal dispersion of the polymer. Since dispersions have lower viscosity than the melt, they can be handled much better. Also, the temperature control is easier. Typical emulsion polymers are poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(methacrylic acid), polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride). Two special applications of emulsion polymerization are the making of well-defined dispersion particles that may contain only one or few polymer molecules, and the possibility to make better defined molecular sizes by controlling the growth periods. 

Stereo control can also be achieved in the homogeneous free-radical polymerization of vinyl monomers by varying the polymerization temperature. Some typical monomers that behave in this manner include methyl methacrylate,(39) vinyl acetate,(41) vinyl chloride,(42) isopropyl and cyclohexyl acrylates.(40) As the polymer temperature is lowered the crystallizabiUty of the polymers becomes more discernible. (46) This observation can be attributed to the fact that as the temperature is lowered there is a preference for units in the same configuration to be added to the growing chain. It has been found that in general there is a preference for syndiotactic sequences to develop as the temperature is lowered. As an example, the observed melting temperature of poly(vinyl chloride) increases from 285 °C to 310 °C as the polymerization temperature is lowered from —15 °C to —75°C, with a concomitant increase in the syndiotacticity.(47)... 

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