Classical optics

E. Hecht. Optics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1987. Well written and illustrated text on classical optics. 

Many classical optical sensing principles, which are well known from free space optics can be implemented in integrated optical structures, while integrated optics at its turn can act as source of new principles. Many types of integrated optical sensors have been investigated and demonstrators have been realized, mostly at universities and other research institutes. And also at... 

The study of the changes of phase, frequency and intensity that the incident radiation undergoes on passing through the material constitutes the field of non-linear optics (NLO). It, in fact, focuses on the description of deviations from the linear behaviour predicted by the laws of classical optics. 

We present here a condensed explanation and summary of the effects. A complete discussion can be found in a paper by Hellen and Axelrod(33) which directly calculates the amount of emission light gathered by a finite-aperture objective from a surface-proximal fluorophore under steady illumination. The effects referred to here are not quantum-chemical, that is, effects upon the orbitals or states of the fluorophore in the presence of any static fields associated with the surface. Rather, the effects are "classical-optical," that is, effects upon the electromagnetic field generated by a classical oscillating dipole in the presence of an interface between any media with dissimilar refractive indices. Of course, both types of effects may be present simultaneously in a given system. However, the quantum-chemical effects vary with the detailed chemistry of each system, whereas the classical-optical effects are more universal. Occasionally, a change in the emission properties of a fluorophore at a surface may be attributed to the former when in fact the latter are responsible. 

Abstract Optical techniques for three-dimensional micro- and nanostructuring of transparent and photo-sensitive materials are reviewed with emphasis on methods of manipulation of the optical field, such as beam focusing, the use of ultrashort pulses, and plasmonic and near-field effects. The linear and nonlinear optical response of materials to classical optical fields as well as exploitation of the advantages of quantum lithography are discussed. 

Strong, J. (1958). Concepts of Classical Optics. Freeman, San Francisco. 

Optical microscopy is often the first step in surface analysis, since it is fast and easy to perform. It can be an aid in selecting the area of interest on a sample for further analysis with more complex methods. The application of classical optical microscopy to surface science is, however, limited because the maximum lateral resolution is in the order of the optical wavelength ( 500 nm). For opaque solids, the light penetrates into the material, giving optical microscopy a poor surface sensitivity. In addition, the depth of field is limited which calls for flat, polished surfaces or allows only plane sections of the sample to be viewed. 

Holton claimed in a patent application that (3/ ,45)-A-benzoyl-3-0-EE-(3-lactam 11 (5 equiv), obtained through tedious classical optical resolution of racemic t (. -3-hydroxy-4-phenylazetidin-2-one, could be directly coupled with 7-TES-bac-catin III (8) in the presence of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) and pyridine and the subsequent deprotection afforded paclitaxel in ca. 82% yield.54 Although this procedure was proved to work by us and by others, the use of a large excess of (3-lactam is obviously inefficient. Moreover, the Holton procedure did not work at all when /V-f-Boc-(3-lactam 12 was used for our attempted syntheses of docetaxel and its 10-acetyl analogue. This is due to the lack of reactivity of the A-r-Boc-(3-lactam 12 toward the C-13 hydroxyl group of a protected baccatin III under the Holton conditions. The lack of reactivity is ascribed to the substantially weaker... 

The principle of superposition, a fundamental of classical optics holds. 

In three dimensions a spatial wave group moves around an harmonic ellipsoid and remains compact, in contrast to the dispersive wave packets of classical optics. The distinction is ascribed to the fact that the quantum wave packet is built up from discrete harmonic components, rather than a continuum of waves. The wave mechanics of a hydrogen electron is conjectured to produce wave packets of the same kind. At small quantum numbers the wave spreads around the nucleus and becomes more particle-like, at high quantum numbers, as it approaches the ionization limit where the electron is ejected from the atom. 

D-(-)-Pantoyl lactone 1s a key intermediate for the synthesis of pantothenic acid which is a member of the vitamin B-complex and is an important constituent of Coenzyme A. Although D-(-)-pantoyl lactone has been obtained by classical optical resolution using quinine, ephedrine, and other chiral amines, catalytic asymmetric synthesis appears to be more effective... 

The study of polymer surfaces would certainly greatly benefit from HREELS contributions, electron-induced vibrational spectroscopy being often presented as the surface counterpart of the classical optical infra-red and Raman spectroscopies. However, the first HREEL spectra from polymer surfaces were published only in 1985 for thin organic films (2), in 1986 for a real insulating thick polyethylene... 

Fig. 8 Classical optical image of the bead arrays capillary (a) and fluorescent microscope images (b)-(k) of the bead arrays after hybridization (reproduced from [31]) (with permission)...

The highly interesting and now classical monograph of Born contains the theory of the optical properties of matter covering atomic and molecular structural considerations. The fundamentals of molecular optics, presented by Bom, have been developed by Volkenshteyn in tensorial form. Various monographs have been written on the laws of classical optics and the fundamentals of physical optics, including natural optical activity," optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism," " i.r. spectroscopy, and other related topics. 

Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) has been developed as a combination of scanning probe microscope and optical microscope in which the spatial resolution is determined by scanning probe microscope resolution while the signals detected are coming from several optical interactions. As a result, NSOM has achieved a higher spatial resolution than that of the classical optical microscopy that uses a conventional lens, which is strictly limited by the diffraction... 

The observation of molecular hydrogen by means of its electronic transitions in a sense follows classical optical interstellar spectroscopy. It is, however, considerably more complex, requiring essentially controlled satellite observatories. Thus, it serves to determine molecular-hydrogen column densities in translucent clouds, but cannot provide images of the dense molecular clouds. For these, carbon monoxide is the generally accepted tool. The reported results are in terms of H2 column densities under the assumption that the H2 CO ratio is the accepted value of 10. CO is observable by means of its many isotopomers. This is extremely useful, as the common isotopomer is frequently optically opaque, making... 

Strong, J. Concepts of classical optics. San Francisco Freeman 1958. — Born, M., Wolf,... 

In classical optics, a one mode electromagnetic held of frequency co, with the propagation vector k and linear polarization, can be represented as a plane wave... 

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