Clarification theory

Another way in which the general message that we endorse might be expressed is through clarification not of the notion of accommodation but instead of that of prediction . In fact scientists often use the notion of prediction in an atemporal sense—that is, one which carries no implicit requirement that predicted events have been hitherto unobserved. Here, for example, is a comment on Newton s theory from French s excellent textbook on Newtonian Mechanics (French, 1971, pp, 5-6 emphases added) ... 

The coordination theory and the principles governing coordinated structures provide the foundation for an interpretation of the structure of the complex silicates and other complex ionic crystals which may ultimately lead to the understanding of the nature and the explanation of the properties of these interesting substances. This will be achieved completely only after the investigation of the structures of many crystals with x-rays. To illustrate the clarification introduced by the new conception the following by no means exhaustive examples are discussed. 

Some years later a more thorough discussion of the motion of pairs of electrons in a metal was given by Cooper,7 as well as by Abrikosov8 and Gor kov,9 who emphasized that the effective charge in superconductivity is 2e, rather than e. The quantization of flux in units hc/2e in superconducting metals has been verified by direct experimental measurement of the magnetic moments induced in thin films.10 Cooper s discussion of the motion of electron pairs in interaction with phonons led to the development of the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory, which has introduced great clarification in the field of superconductivity.2... 

The thermodynamic theory of electrocapillarity considered above is simultaneously the thermodynamic theory of the electrical double layer and yields, in its framework, quantitative data on the double layer. However, further clarification of the properties of the double layer must be based on a consideration of its structure. 

The sources of theories and principles for chromium reduction using an acid, chemical precipitation using a base, and clarification are detailed in Refs. 8 to 10. 

The usefulness of these ideas in clearing up some old mysteries and puzzles made me think that we are now reaching a clarification of ideas which is bringing a comprehensive theory of cationic polymerisations at last within sight, if not yet within our grasp. A further reason for believing this is that advances in the fields of anionic polymerisation, of radiation chemistry, of electrochemistry, of donor-acceptor complexes, and others, have helped to define the limits within which the comprehensive theory must be constructed. It may be useful to show here just what some of these limits are. 

Today, the situation is just the opposite and it seems at first strange to try to improve our understanding of quantum theory by using methods and techniques developed in statistical mechanics and in thermodynamics. That is, however, what I shall try to do. I shall not go into any technical details which may be found elsewhere.19,21 But I would like to emphasize here the physical ideas behind the formalism. It seems to me that this new development may lead to a clarification of concepts used in widely different fields such as thermodynamics and statistical mechanics of irreversible... 

The molecular theory of surface tension was dealt with by Laplace (1749-1827). But, as a result of the clarification of the nature, of intermolecular forces by quantum mechanics and of the more recent developments in the study of molecular distribution in liquids, the nature and value of surface tension have been better understood from a molecular viewpoint. Surface tension is closely associated with a sudden, but continuous change in the density from the value for bulk liquid to the value for die gaseous state in traversing the surface. See Fig. 2. As a result of this inhomogeneity, the stress across a strip parallel to the boundary—pu per unit area—is different from that across a strip perpendicular to die boundary—pr per unit area. This is in contrast with die case of homogeneous fluid in which the stress across any elementary plane has the same value regardless of the direction of die plane,... 

As little as 1 % fat in the mix has a very strong effect on the stability of the final ice cream (mentioned later under Descriptive Tests). Due to this strong effect the fat phase is believed not to be in a globular but in a more expanded crystalline state in such systems. This would give better possibilities for covering the air bubbles in the foam. This theory is highly speculative, and requires further studies for clarification. 

Let us first set up the stage by introducing selected topics illustrating only the dominating view in the quantum theory of measurement. The description is based on selected references. The reader is kindly asked to examine them to get further information and clarifications. 

Equation (1-1) is the defining equation for thermal conductivity. On the basis of this definition, experimental measurements may be made to determine the thermal conductivity of different materials. For gases at moderately low temperatures, analytical treatments in the kinetic theory of gases may be used to predict accurately the experimentally observed values. In some cases, theories are available for the prediction of thermal conductivities in liquids and solids, but in general, many open questions and concepts still need clarification where liquids and solids are concerned. 

The object of this book is to provide an introduction to electrochemistry in its present state of development. An attempt has been made to explain the fundamentals of the subject as it stands today, devoting little or no space to the consideration of theories and arguments that have been discarded or greatly modified. In this way it is hoped that the reader will acquire the modern point of view in electrochemistry without being burdened by much that is obsolete. In the opinion of the writer, there have been four developments in the past two decades that have had an important influence on electrochemistry. They are the activity concept, the interionic attraction theory, the proton-transfer theory of acids and bases, and the consideration of electrode reactions as rate processes. These ideas have been incorporated into the structure of the book, with consequent simplification and clarification in the treatment of many aspects of electrochemistry. 

Most protein stability studies have focused their interpretation on either a thermodynamic mechanism or a pure kinetic mechanism, and consequently there is some controversy and confusion over which mechanism is correct. Since the direction of a formulation development effort may depend on which theory is being followed, clarification of the roles of thermodynamic stabilization and kinetic stabilization in given stability problems would provide some practical benefit. This chapter is an attempt to provide such clarification. To this end, the major stresses, or destabilizing effects, that operate during the freeze-drying process are discussed, selected empirical observations regarding pharmaceutical stability in protein systems are presented, and the structure and dynamics in amorphous protein formulations are discussed. 

Filtration theory has two important aspects. The first describes the flow of fluids through porous media and is applicable to both clarification and cake filtration. The second, which is of primary importance only in clarification, is the retention of particles on a depth filter. 

A mathematical account of the theories of clarification with depth filters is found in the work of Ives and Maroudas and Eisenklam. ... 

It is a common practice to use the thickness of the deposited film divided by the deposition time to represent the deposition rate. This is in principle incorrect. The reaction rate in the heterogeneous kinetic rate theory should be expressed in terms of moles/sec cm2 or in similar units. Only when it is verified that there are no density and/or compositional changes in the experimental window of interest can one exchange the reaction rate in moles/sec cm2 by the deposition rate in nm/sec. The determination of the deposition rate, however, needs some further clarification. 

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