Carbohydrate carrageenan

The lambda type is nongelling, and functions as a thickner. Iota-carrageenan has been recommended (45) for use in formulating low fat ground beef due to its abihty to retain moisture, especially through a freeze—thaw cycle which is typical for ground beef patties. Oat bran and oat fiber can also be used to improve moisture retention and mouth feel. Modified starches can be used as binders to maintain juiciness and tenderness in low fat meat products. Maltodextrins (dextrose equivalent less than 20) may be used as binders up to 3.5% in finished meat products. Other carbohydrates such as konjac flour, alginate, microcrystalline cellulose, methylceUulose, and carboxymethylceUulose have also been used in low fat meat products (see CELLULOSE ETHERs). 

Etherification. Carbohydrates are involved in ether formation, both intramoleculady and intermoleculady (1,13). The cycHc ether, 1,4-sorbitan, an 1,4-anhydroalditol, has already been mentioned. 3,6-Anhydro-a-D-galactopyranosyl units are principal monomer units of the carrageenans. Methyl, ethyl, carboxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, and hydroxypropyl ethers of cellulose (qv) are all commercial materials. The principal starch ethers are the hydroxyethyl and hydroxypropylethers (see Cellulose ethers Starch). 

Harding, S.E. Day, K. Dham, R. Lowe, P.M. 1997a. Further observations on the size, shape and hydration of kappa-carrageenan in dilute solution. Carbohydrate Polymers 32, 81-87. 

Certain polysaccharides are normally hydrolyzed with mineral acid, usually sulfuric acid, either by direct refluxing with dilute acid or by preliminary dissolution in concentrated acid. Typical procedures have been described, and the associated problems discussed.22,23 Although prior solution of the polysaccharide in 72% sulfuric acid is a standard procedure,24 it has been shown that part of the carbohydrate may become sulfated, leading to erroneous results.23 When noncrystalline polysaccharides are being hydrolyzed, the treatment with 72% acid may be slightly modified.26 In special situations, oxidative hydrolysis, for example, of carrageenan, may be achieved by using sulfuric acid in the presence of bromine.27... 

Chronakis, I.S., Piculell, L., Borgstrom, J. (1996). Rheology of kappa-carrageenan in mixtures of sodium and cesium iodide two types of gels. Carbohydrate Polymers, 31, 215-225. 

Lundin, L., Hermansson, A.-M. (1997). Rheology and microstructure of Ca- and Na-K-carrageenan and locust bean gum gels. Carbohydrate Polymers, 34, 365-375. 

Semenova, M.G., Plashchina, I.G., Braudo, E.E., Tolstoguzov, V.B. (1988). Structure formation in sodium K-carrageenan solutions. Carbohydrate Polymers, 9, 133-145. 

Turquois, T., Rochas, C., and Taravel, F. R. (1992). Rheological studies of synergistic kappa carrageenan-carob galactomannan gels. Carbohydr. Polym. 17 263-268. 

V. L. Campo, D. F. Kawano, D. B. da Silva, Jr., and I. Carvalho, Carrageenans Biological properties, chemical modifications and structural analysis—A review, Carbohydr. Polym., 11 (2009) 167-180. 

V. DiNinno, E. L. McCandless, and R. A. Bell, Pyruvic acid derivative of a carrageenan from a marine red algae (Petrocelis species), Carbohydr. Res., 71 (1979) Cl—C4. 

T. J. Painter, Kappa-Carrageenan. Isolation of K>carrageenan from red algae, Methods Carbohydr. Chem., 5 (1965) 98-100. 

C. A. Stortz and A. S. Cerezo, The systems of carrageenans from cystocarpic and tetrasporic stages from Iridaea undulosa Fractionation with potassium chloride and methylation analysis of the fractions, Carbohydr. Res., 242 (1993) 217-227. 

C. A. Stortz, M. R. Cases, and A. S. Cerezo, The system of agaroids and carrageenans from the soluble fraction of the tetrasporic stage of the red seaweed Iridaea undulosa, Carbohydr. Polym., 34 (1997) 61-65. 

C. Viebke, J. Borgstrom, and L. Piculell, Characterisation of kappa- and iota-carrageenan coils and helices by MALLS/GPC, Carbohydr. Polym., 27 (1995) 145-154. 

R. Takano, H. Iwane-Sakata, K. Hayashi, S. Hara, and S. Hirase, Concurrence of agaroid and carrageenan chains in funoran from the red seaweed Gloiopeltis furcata Post, et Ruprecht (Crypto-nemiales, Rhodophyta), Carbohydr. Polym., 35 (1998) 81-87. 

A. Chiovitti, A. Bade, D. J. Craik, S. L. A. Munro, G. T. Kraft, and M.-L. Liao, Cell-wall polysaccharides from Australian red algae of the family Solieriaceae (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) Novel, highly pyruvated carrageenans from the genus Callophycus, Carbohydr. Res., 299 (1997) 229-243. 

B. Quemener, M. Lahaye, and F. Metro, Assessment of methanolysis for the determination of composite sugars of gelling carrageenans and agarose by HPLC, Carbohydr. Res., 266 (1995) 53-64. 

M. K. Fatema, H. Nonami, D. R. B. Ducatti, A. G. Gonqalves, M. E. R. Duarte, M. D. Noseda, A. S. Cerezo, R. Erra-Balsells, and M. C. Matulewicz, Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry analysis of oligosaccharides and oligosaccharide alditols obtained by hydrolysis of agaroses and carrageenans, two important types of red seaweed polysaccharides, Carbohydr. Res., 345 (2010) 275-283. 

A. A. Kolender and M. C. Matulewicz, Desulfation of sulfated galactans with chlorotrimethylsilane. Characterization of /J-carrageenan by -NMR spectroscopy, Carbohydr. Res., 339 (2004) 1619-1629. 

M. Ciancia, M. D. Noseda, M. C. Matilewicz, and A. S. Cerezo, Alkali-modification of carrageenans Mechanism and kinetics in the kappa/iota, mu/nu and lambda-series, Carbohydr. Polym., 20 (1993) 95-98. 

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