Betaine aldehyde

In addition to natural muscarine and the so-called choline-muscarine referred to above, two other products have been given names suggesting relationship to muscarine, viz. (1) isomuscarine, Me3N(OH). CHOH. CH2OH prepared by Bode and shown to be toxic, but distinct from muscarine in type of action, and (2) anhydromuscarine (betaine aldehyde) made first by Berlinerblau and later by Fischer and which, according to Voet possesses nicotine and curare-like properties. 

This enzyme [EC 1.2.1.8] catalyzes the reaction of betaine aldehyde with NAD+ and water to produce betaine and NADH. 

This enzyme [EC 1.1.99.1] is PQQ-dependent and catalyzes the reaction of choline with the acceptor to produce betaine aldehyde and the reduced acceptor. 

BETAINE-ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE BETAINE-HOMOCYSTEINE S-METHYL-TRANSFERASE... 

AMINO ACID DEHYDROGENASE AQUACOBALAMIN REDUCTASES BENZOATE L,2-DIOXYGENASE BETAINE-ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE CDP-GLUCOSE 4,6-DEHYDRATASE DEHYDROASCORBATE REDUCTASE... 

Choline + C>2 Cooling oxidase > Betaine aldehyde + H2O2 (la)... 

Betaine aldehyde + O2 Choline Qxidass, > Betaine + H2O2 (lb)... 

Choline oxidase and acetylcholineesterase Enzymes immobilized on a nylon net attached to H202-selective amperometric sensor. ChO is used for choline and AChE and ChO for acetylcholine. Rectilinear response in the range of 1-10 pM. Response time 1-2 min. Interferences occur from ascorbic acid, primary amines, and most seriously from betaine aldehyde. [64]... 

The oxidation of choline to betaine is catalyzed by two enzymes. First, choline is oxidized to betaine aldehyde by an enzyme which is found in mitochondria in membrane-bound form. This enzyme is believed to be a flavoprotein containing nonheme iron. Betaine aldehyde is then oxidized to betaine by a soluble enzyme, which is NAD-linked. Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase appears to be present both in mitochondria and the soluble fraction of liver 243, 246). 

The existence of choline dehydrogenase was first demonstrated by Mann and Quastel in 1937 247, 248) in extracts of rat liver and kidney. These authors also obtained evidence that the first oxidation product of choline was betaine aldehyde. Others showed subsequently that choline oxidase activity resided in the mitochondrial fraction of rat liver and is linked to the respiratory chain 249, 250). Detergents 251, 252), solvent treatment of fragmented mitochondria 253), and venom phospholipase 254-256) have been used for extraction and solubilization of choline dehydrogenase. Among these, the best method reported to date appears to be the digestion of acetone-powdered mitochondria with venom phospholipase. Choline dehydrogenase, partially purified from phospholipase extracts of rat liver mitochondria, contains 1 mole of flavin and 4 g-atoms of nonheme iron per 850,000 g protein. The flavin is claimed to be acid-... 

Betaine, formation of, 260 Betaine aldehyde, choline dehydrogenase and, 261, 262... 

Figure 14.4. Catabolism of choline. Choline dehydrogenase, EC 1.1.99.1 betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase, EC 1.2.1.8 and homocysteine methyltransferase, EC 2.1.1.5. Relative molecular masses (Mr) choline, 104.2 betaine, 117.2 dimethylglycine, 102.2 methylglycine, 88.2 and glycine, 74.2. THF, tetrahydrofolate.

Trimethylamino-acetaldehyde (CHjIjN —CHjCHO (betaine aldehyde) NAD —... 

Beromun 23, 463, 479 Beta-cyclodextrin 407 Betaferon 4, 17, 467 Beta-glucocerebrosidase 861 Beta-grasp motif 383 Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 976 Betaine synthesis 977 Betaseron 17, 467, 1404 Beta-tryptase 405... 

Once choline has entered the cell, its normal fate is rapid phosphorylation by choline kinase (Fig. 3). In neurons choline is also converted to the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. Choline can also be oxidized to betaine [-00C-CH2-N (CH3)3] in the liver and kidney. In liver, betaine is an important donor of methyl groups for methionine biosynthesis. Betaine is produced in mitochondria into which choline is transported by a specific transporter on the inner membranes. Next, choline is oxidized to betaine aldehyde by choline dehydrogenase on the inner leaflet of the mitochondrial inner membranes and the subsequent conversion to betaine is catalyzed by betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase in the mitochondrial matrix. Betaine can be transported into kidney medulla by a betaine transporter. In renal medulla and many plants and organisms, betaine accumulates as an osmolyte (a small organic solute that accumulates in response to hypertonicity without adverse effects to the cell or organism) (J.S. Handler, 1992). Hypertonicity of the renal medulla is important for the kidney s ability to concentrate urine. 

Other compounds involved in one-carbon metabolism are derived from degradation products of choline. Choline, an essential component of certain phospholipids, is oxidized to form betaine aldehyde, which is further oxidized to betaine (trimethylglycine). In the liver, betaine can donate a methyl group to homocysteine to form methionine and dimethyl glycine. This allows the liver to have two routes for homocysteine conversion to methionine. Under conditions in which SAM accumulates, glycine can be methylated to form sarcosine (N-methyl glycine). This route is used when methionine levels are high and excess methionine needs to be metabolized. 

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