Batteries, lead-acid demand

The conductivity of the grid plays a substantial role in a battery s abiUty to meet high current demands. The importance of grid conductivity for lead—acid batteries has been discussed (1,69). Composition and configuration are important design factors impacting grid conductivity. 

Lead-acid batteries remain popular because of their capability to seiwice high and low current demand, produce high voltage, provide capacity up to 100 A-h, and recharge well. Moreover, the lead-acid battery has important material and construction advantages, such as simple fabrication of lead components, the low cost of materials (lead is abundant and much less expen-... 

Finally, one development results from returning to a basic idea from the dawn of the lead-acid battery, wherein the functions of support for the positive active material and of the separator are combined into one component the gauntlet separator [84] consisting of a coarsely porous, flexible support structure coated with micropo-rous polyethylene material for separation. The future has to show whether this approach will be able to meet all demands. 

New lithium-based and the more conventional Ni-Zn batteries may eventually replace lead-acid batteries as new technology and advanced manufacturing techniques reduce their costs. Metal-air batteries, both rechargeable (zinc) and nonrechargeable fuel-cell types (aluminum), may ultimately be successful as an economical primary source for short-trip transportation. The demand for increasing electronic equipment will require increased auxiliary power, which may be fulfilled by improved lithium-based and Ni-Zn systems. 

Two multifunetional energy storage systems, eaeh with a 1.2-MWh lead-acid battery, were installed reeently in Germany. There is one system in combination with a solar plant and another one in combination with a wind farm. The batteries consist of OCSM cells with the standard design, but modified aecording to the special demand of a multifunctional application. 

In the future, there will be an increasing market for large lead-acid batteries, especially as there is a growing demand for high-quality power arising from the... 

The high recycle rate in developing countries is supported by the scrap prices, which, even in western terms, are very high. In China, spent automotive batteries are purchased for US 270 300 per tonne, compared with an equivalent of US 80 90 per tonne in Europe and US 60-80 in Australia. This creates a strong demand for all types of lead acid batteries, including small 6-V and 12-V VRLA batteries. Western countries are still devising collection schemes to recover batteries of this size, which is a challenging task due to their low per-unit value and wide dispersion. 

In summary, the lead-acid battery can meet the ever-increasing demands for higher performance, but this presents major challenges to lead producers. The prime requirement is to supply a growing battery market with lead of higher purity than previously specified. This is not an impossible hurdle to overcome, but it will require a focused effort — particularly in the secondary lead area. 

In 1879, Thomas Edison in the United States and Joseph Swan in England invented the incandescent lamp, thus making it possible to convert electric energy into light. The invention of the light bulb promoted the use of electricity in people s everyday life. Electricity entered human lives. Lead—acid battery demand increased. However, large-scale production of lead—acid batteries was constrained by the technology of their manufacture. 

After World War II, production of lead—acid batteries increased immensely, stimulated by the rapid development of the automobile, transport and telecommunications industries, as well as by the increased demand for reserve (stand-by) energy, and most recently by the boom of... 

Recently, different polymer materials have attracted attention as possible additives to sulfuric acid electrolyte aimed to improve battery performance and to meet the ever-increasing demands for specific power and cycle bfe performance of lead—acid batteries. 

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