Authorship determining

It is often said that all authors are responsible for the entire content of a manuscript. This is a meritorious ideal, but unrealistic. Most manuscripts have multiple authors, and very often, a single author is responsible for only a portion of the work being presented. For example, the manuscript may contain a crystal structure, determined by an expert crystallographer spectral data, determined by an expert spectroscopist kinetic data, determined by an expert kineticist etc. In cases such as this, a single author cannot be held responsible for all of the results presented. A more realistic assessment of what authorship implies is that each author should have read the manuscript carefully and understood the findings, but the technical responsibility is only for the area in which a given author... 

It must be remembered that inventorship is different from authorship. Inventorship is based on legal requirements and must be strictly followed, whereas authorship is more arbitrary. The determination of inventorship is based on first inspecting the invention and determining what person or persons made an inventive contribution to the conception and reduction to practice of this invention. Conception is the mental steps taken to develop the invention. Reduction to practice is the physical process of taking the idea to the completed working invention. When two or more inventors (joint inventors) are involved, each must contribute to the claimed invention, but each is not required to have made a contribution to each claim of the patent. 

To determine the overall position of U.S. research in chemistry relative to research performed in other regions or countries, the panel analyzed journals (paper authorship, most highly cited articles, most accessed articles, and hot papers), international congress speakers, and prizes. Most of these measures have previously been used to assess quality of science however, in addition, the panel used virtual congress evaluations to determine the leadership groups within each subarea. The limitations of each individual measure were recognized, and therefore, the panel analyzed the collective results of all of the indicators to draw conclusions regarding relative research competitiveness. 

The exploration, in both Brand and A Doll s House, of the relation of the structures of the modern world to a sphere of contingent or anarchic determinations, became more dominant still in Ibsen s final four plays, which have frequently been identified with a symbolist phase in his authorship. Particularly in The Master Builder and When We Dead Awaken, Ibsen reduces plot to a minimum and increases the deliberate challenge to realist conventions, thereby forcing his audience to discover alternative modes of motivation among textual units. These plays resonated not only with symbolists abroad, but also those within Scandinavia, where authors such 196... 

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