Artificial satellites

First artificial satellite, Sputnik, in orbit (Soviet Union). 

Artificial satellites, which are now used for communication, broadcast, weather forecast, etc., are equipped with a variety of semiconductor devices, which are often exposed to the high levels of radiation found in space. Such energetic particles, called cosmic rays, cause the degradation and malfunction of semiconductor devices, which lowers both the mission lifetime and reliability of satellites. Using ion beam irradiation facilities at TIARA, which have been uniquely adapted for simulating the radiation environment of space, we have... 

GaAs solar cells have also been evaluated at TIARA because in 1998 the artificial satellite COMETS, which was equipped with similar cells, orbited across a strong ionization... 

Vn October 3, 1957 the first successful artificial satellite began to orbit... 

There are several approaches to the conversion of sunlight into electrical or chemical energy. The first method is the direct transformation into electricity by means of photovoltaic cells. These are based on a purely photophysical process, and they have been used successfully in many small-scale applications to provide electrical power for artificial satellites, for... 

To evaluate the thermodynamic and radiation properties of a natural or perturbed state of the upper atmosphere or ionosphere, the thermal and transport properties of heated air are required. Such properties are also of particular interest in plasma physics, in gas laser systems, and in basic studies of airglow and the aurora. In the latter area the release of certain chemical species into the upper atmosphere results in luminous clouds that display the resonance electronic-vibrational-rotational spectrum of the released species. Such spectra are seen in rocket releases of chemicals for upper-atmosphere studies and on reentry into the atmosphere of artificial satellites. Of particular interest in this connection are the observed spectra of certain metallic oxides and air diatomic species. From band-intensity distribution of the spectra and knowledge of the /-values for electronic and vibrational transitions, the local conditions of the atmosphere can be determined.1... 

The orbits of artificial satellites of the Earth or other bodies with atmospheres whose orbits come close to their surfaces are very complicated. The orbits of these satellites are influenced by atmospheric drag, which tends to bring the satellite down into the lower atmosphere, where it is either vaporized by atmospheric friction or falls to the planet s surface. In addition, the shape of Earth and many other bodies is not perfectly spherical. The bulge that forms at the equator, due to the planet s spinning motion, causes a stronger gravitational attraction. When the satellite passes by the equator, it may be slowed enough to pull it to earth. 

Separation of Plutonium from Air-monitoring Samples. Plutonium-238 2 6 yPu and 21+0Pu have been introduced into environment because of the experiments of nuclear explosion in air and of some accidents of the artificial satellites. Analysis of the plutonium is needed to elucidate the distribution of the plutonium in air and the rate of descent to the surface. For this purpose analytical procedures have been developed and utilized for routine measurements of the air-borne plutonium (18). 

And it is from the earth, from carloads of rock, that man has learned to draw out the raw materials of ships and skyscrapers, radios and artificial satellites. 

The network links the users to the host computer. A few international companies serve this purpose throughout the world. An example is the USA-based Intercontinental INFONET network, which links computers via coaxial leads and artificial satellites. The telephone line is also commonly used as the vehicle for transmission of scientific Information. 

The UHF and VHF waves used in television broadcasting penetrate the ionosphere with litfle reflection. Therefore TV broadcasts can only be made over long distances by means of artificial satellites. See also... 

The study of the Sun during the IGY coincided and may have influenced the timing of the first artificial satellites launched by the Soviet Union (Spumik 1, October 4 and Spumik 2, November 2,1957) followed by Explorer 1 of the USA on January 31, 1958. At the request of James van Allen, the American satellite carried a Geiger Counter that detected the inner radiation belt that encircles the Earth (Victor 1964 Faure and Mensing 2007). 

In the USSR, RTGs operated in artificial satellites (AS) of the Kosmos-84 series. In the USA, 38 RTGs of different design and power were launched in space between 1961 and 1977. Later, a unified GPHS RTG with Pu fuel pellets and thermal power of 300 W was developed... 

For future technology of spintronics and photonics, the interaction of chirality of electron spin with another particle, such as nucleus and photon, should play an important role. Furthermore, the general relativity has recently been of vital importance to our daily lives, particularly for ultra-high-precision communication with an artificial satellite (e.g., GPS). The intrinsic formulations of tlie quantum electron spin vorticity principle and the energy density concept presented in this paper should help us understand the importance of stress tensor in modeling of materials of technological importance and chemical reactions. 

Li-ion batteries have been used in a number of portable electronic devices. Due to their high energy densities, these batteries have been considered as possible power sources in electric vehicles, artificial satellites and load leveling. However, before Li-ion batteries can be used in large-scale applications, their performance still needs to be improved with regard to battery cycle life, rate capability and safety. Among them, the safety issues should be alleviated to make these batteries serve as reliable power sources. 

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