Anti-matter

A notable exception is Svante Arrhenius, whose eminently sensible suggestion [103], that new stars and planets arise from the debris of previous cycles, in an endless sequence, is never mentioned in modern cosmologies. Many other concepts of relevance are equally difficult to reconcile with the standard model of modern cosmology, which offers no explanation for the ubiquitous appearance of chiral structures, the reality of anti-matter and the periodic trends in the cosmic abundance and genesis of nuclides. 

The inversion of atomic structure when forced through the black hole probably means that the disappearing matter emerges as anti-matter on the other... 

Cosmic structure based on a vacuum interface has been proposed before [49, 7] as a device to rationalize quantum events. To avoid partitioning the universe into regions of opposite chirality the two sides of the interface are joined together with an involution. The one-dimensional analogue is a Mobius strip. Matter on opposite sides of the interface has mutually inverted chirality - matter and anti-matter - but transplantation along the double cover gradually interconverts the two chiral forms. The amounts of matter and anti-matter in such a universe are equal, as required by symmetry, but only one form is observed to predominate in any local environment. Because of the curvature, which is required to close the universe, space itself is chiral, as observed in the structure of the electromagnetic field. This property does not appear in a euclidean Robertson-Walker sub-space. 

Problem 1.1 Would you agree that the positron is called the anti matter of the electron since it attracts electrons electromagnetically Do you have any other suggestion for the positron in conjunction with electrons ... 

Problem 1.1 Anti-matter and matter interact via the annihilation process, which is represented by a delta function or zero distance between them (see Chapter 2), while the electromagnetic interaction is represented by the reciprocal of the distance. Electromagetically, the positron attracts an electron it is suggested to call the positron as the counter electron analogy to a counter ion to an ion from chemistry perspective. 

The separation of matter and anti-matter can only happen in chiral space-time. This requirement rules out affine geometry. 

The formation of an interface in a two-component homogeneous fluid happens when interaction between like entities becomes dominant. The resulting rearrangement is an example of symmetry breakdown that leads to the segregation of components into separate layers. On the cosmic scale a phase separation between matter and anti-matter is assumed to create two three-dimensional worlds in 4D space, such as >4 of Thierrin space. The interface can therefore not be crossed in three dimensions. 

The history of the elements is in many ways the history of chemistry and physics. Before the search for the elements, there was the philosophical question of what was an element. That question was posed more than 2,500 years ago, and it has had many solutions. Each in turn has given way to a new answer that was made possible by new theories, new tools, and new observations. Our current answer to what constitute an element looks like it has staying power, since it fits so well with so many other aspects of our understanding of chemistry and physics, but there are still aspects of matter that are unresolved. Future work on the origin of matter in the universe, work on dark matter and anti-matter, on superstrings and the interior of subatomic particles, could alter our understanding of the elements. 

If a radioactive nuclide has a neutron-to-proton ratio that is too low, placing it below the band of stability, it can move toward stability in one of two ways, positron emission or electron capture. Positron emission (P" ") is similar to beta emission, but in this case, a proton becomes a neutron and an anti-matter electron, or anti-elearon. The latter is also called a positron because, although it resembles an electron in most ways, it has a positive charge. The neutron stays in the nucleus, and the positron speeds out of the nucleus at high velocity, p n + e ... 

The decay of radioactive isotopes via electron emission, so-called beta decay, is a well-known phenomenon, hi this mode imstable nuclei that have an excessive number of neutrons, for example can emit fast electrons, particles, in order to attain a stable nuclear configuration. Nuclei with insufficient neutrons, such as can obtain stability by emitting fast positrons, particles (the anti-matter equivalents of electrons). Both processes are classified as radioactive f) decay. In each case, the mass munber of the nucleus remains constant but the atomic number changes. There exist several positron emitting isotopes, of which and in particular... 

Whereas energy appears to be distributed almost continuously, compared to matter, the distribution of matter presents the more tractable problem. When delving into the nature of matter, in its most elementary state, it is encountered in two antagonistic forms with equal probability. These two forms, called matter and anti-matter are best considered as the complementary forms of elementary stuff in two symmetry-related modes of existence. Symmetry-related units of matter and antimatter have the same mass but opposite electric charges and behave in opposite sense with respect to time. This relationship obeys the dictates of what is probably the most fundamental symmetry in Nature, known as CPT (charge conjugation-parity-time inversion) symmetry. Wherever it has been investigated, all natural phenomena have been found to obey CPT symmetry without exception. 

The symmetry forms known as matter and anti-matter are said to be of opposite chirality, or handedness. The most common form of antimatter occurs on earth, during the decay of some radioactive atomic nuclei, as positively charged electrons, called positrons. An encounter between positron and electron leads to mutual annihilation... 

Plots of Z/N vs Z, N and A converge to Z, N = Z jr and A = Z /r respectively. Not only are the separate periodic functions in terms ol Z, N and A intimitely related, but, in each case, also reduce to closed functions, consistent with equal fields of stability for matter and anti-matter. 

The physical interpretation is that matter, which seems to disappear into a black hole, has an escape route through a non-Euclidean throat that connects one part of the universe to a related region of opposite chirality, which implies conversion of matter into anti-matter. 

To avoid the problem of CPT symmetry standard cosmology makes the empirical assumption that the universe contains no anti-matter and that all cosmological models need to explain this observation. This is clearly an unsubstantiated assumption because spectroscopic observation, on which astronomy relies, cannot distinguish between material and anti-material galaxies. 

It is evident from Figures 4.2 and 7.1 that in projective Minkowski space there are no separate time and space cones. Timelike and spacelike motion therefore occurs throughout all space-time. The involuted interface coincides with the null geodesics of the manifold and carries the electromagnetic (and possibly other) fields. It separates conjugate domains, identified as matter and anti-matter respectively. 

The same applies to protons, neutrons and more complex matter. In the physical world annihilation of matter and anti-matter is prevented by separation on an interface in the vacuum. Without such an interface matter cannot exist and this mandates a space-time topology that allows the appearance of this interface. 

Paul Dirac made a magnificent contribution to quantum theory. His main achievements are the foundations of quantum electrodynamics and construction of the relativistic wave equation (1926-1928) which now bears his name. The equation not only described the electron, but also its anti-matter counterpart - the positron (predicting anti-matter). Spin was also inherently present in the equation. 

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