Anatomical systems

IS GLUTAMATE IMMUNOLABELING EVIDENCE OF A NEUROTRANSMITTER ROLE FOR GLUTAMATE  

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Table 4.2 shows the number of groups within which pharmaceutical presentations are classified at different levels of therapeutic differentiation. The classifications are made up of 15 and 14 main therapeutic chapters in England and Spain respectively. At this level, products are grouped according to their therapeutic effect in terms of the main anatomical systems gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system and so on. 

Neurons are arranged in distributed networks to govern human behavior (Mesulam, 1998). Here we focus on four major anatomical systems the cortex, the thalamus, the basal ganglia, and the medial temporal lobe (Fig. 2.1). 

Smythies J. 1997. The functional neuroanatomy of awareness with a focus on the role of various anatomical systems in the control of intermodal attention. Consciousness and Cognition 6 455-481. 

Ottersen OP (1991) Excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters anatomical systems. In Meldrum BS (Ed), Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists. London Blackwell, pp 14-35. 

These are problem relative - there is a model for the blood system of a mammal and another for the nervous system, both abstracted from the body of the animal in question. To create an analytical model the anatomist must be able to observe the body of the animal in question as a concrete source of the abstract lay out of the various anatomical systems that can be represented in diagrams. Newton s model of the solar system as a system of perfect material spheres obeying Kepler s laws of motion and the inverse square law of gravitational attraction was derived by abstraction and ideahzation of observable fears of the actual solar system (Frigg 2010 251-268). Analytical models can be wholly pictorial as in anatomy or they can be abstract and partially mathematical as in the Newtonian cosmology. 

Neurological Control. The nervous system can be divided into two anatomical systems—the somatic nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system enables the body to adapt to stimuli from the external environment. Various stimuli, such as touch, are perceived by specialized receptors within this system, and the body responds accordingly. The autonomic system involves the maintenance of homeostasis—the internal environment of the body. This is the system that controls the gastrointestinal tract. 

The motor system of the human body comprises three interrelated anatomical systems (1) the skeletal system (bones and joints), which provides the rigidity of the body segments and connectivity between them (2) the muscle system, which powers movement and (3) the nervous system, which controls the muscles. 

Fig. 3. Schematic representation showing the anatomical basis for differences in the quantitative supply of absorbed material to the Hver. By swallowing (oral route), the main fraction of the absorbed dose is transported direcdy to the Hver. FoUowing inhalation or dermal exposure, the material passes to the pulmonary circulation and thence to the systemic circulation, from which only a portion passes to the Hver. This discrepancy in the amount of absorbed material passing to the Hver may account for differences in toxicity of a material by inhalation and skin contact, compared with its toxicity by swallowing, if metaboHsm of the material in the Hver is significant in its detoxification or metaboHc activation.

The distinction between a- and P-adrenergic receptors was first proposed by Ahlquist in 1948 based on experiments with various catecholamine derivatives to produce excitatory (a) or inhibitory (P) responses in isolated smooth muscle systems. Initially, a further subdivision into presynaptic a2- and postsynaptic oq-receptors was proposed. However, this anatomical classification of a-adrenergic recqrtor subtypes was later abandoned. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) promotes the use of an Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification system for the collection and analysis of data on drug use. This was originally developed by Scandinavian authorities, and uses a combination of anatomical, therapeutic and chemical criteria to assign drugs to an individual class. The top-level categories, which are anatomically based, are listed in Table 3.2. 

Pharmacokinetic Model—A set of equations that can be used to describe the time course of a parent chemical or metabolite in an animal system. There are two types of pharmacokinetic models data-based and physiologically-based. A data-based model divides the animal system into a series of compartments which, in general, do not represent real, identifiable anatomic regions of the body whereby the physiologically-based model compartments represent real anatomic regions of the body. 

Gentian violet solution is used to delineate the areas to be treated. Refrigerant topical anesthesia is used to freeze the skin prior to the procedure. Holding the skin taut, the dermabrader treats one anatomic unit at a time. Post-operatively, patients may have an open or closed dressing system, use antiviral agents, antibacterials and corticosteroids. The re-epithelialization is complete in 5-7 days and residual erythema is common for up to 4 weeks. 

Pathological observations indicate that lesions of the cardiovascular system can be a cause of death in patients with anaphylaxis [2], Myocardial lesions might be the anatomical basis for the irreversible cardiac failure occasionally associated with systemic anaphylaxis [3]. There is compelling evidence that the heart is directly and/or indirectly involved in several forms of anaphylaxis in man [1,4,5]. 

Papadopoulos, GC and Pamavelas, JG (1991) Monoamine systems in the cerebral cortex evidence for anatomical specificity. Prog. Neurobiol. 36 195-200. 

Loeomotor aetivity has historically been used as an index of psychostimulant effects. Simple assessment of amount of loeomotor activity can provide the basis for anatomical as well as pharmaeologieal analysis of the neural substrates that mediate the behavioral expression of stimulant action. More sophisticated behavioral measurement systems ean reeord multiple measures of activity and describe spatial and temporal patterning of loeomo-tion. In such systems, qualitative aspects of behavioral activation can be evaluated by examining the entire activity profile. A comparison of the effects of novel drugs with those produced by well-characterized substanees may lead to a better understanding of their mechanisms of action and subjective properties. 

Molliver, M.E. Serotonergic neuronal systems What their anatomic organization tells us about function. J Clin Psychopharmacol [Suppl] 7 3-23, 1987. 

One of the striking aspects of this toxicity of compounds is selective destruction terminals and the cell bodies that are left intact. Dr. De Souza has recently reported some biochemical evidence for recovery of serotonin. We have now found anatomic evidence for reinnervation of depleted areas by serotonin neurons. But it is going to be a while before we figure out whether their reinnervation is appropriate or perhaps aberrant. Do they end up with complete recovery, do they end up with a better system than they started with or one that malfunctions I think that is an important area for future study. 

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