After the Fact

Studies of the liquid-solid interface can be divided into those that are perfonned ex situ and those perfomied in situ. In an ex situ experiment, a surface is first reacted in solution, and then removed from the solution and transferred into a UFIV spectrometer for measurement. There has recently been, however, much work aimed at interrogating the liquid-solid interface in situ, i.e. while chemistry is occurring rather than after the fact. 

Joint Authorship. When more than one author has created a work, the work is said to be a joint work. Under the law, such a joint work is one prepared by two or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into inseparable or interdependent parts of a unitary whole. Thus joint authorship can occur when a composer and a lyricist collaborate on a song. Even though their contributions can exist independendy of each other, ie, the music as an instmmental, the lyrics as a poem, they were created as interdependent parts of a unitary whole, ie, the song. Two scientists collaborating on an article for a scientific journal are similarly joint authors. Their contributions caimot be teased out of the article they have written and so are inseparable parts of a unitary whole. The test of joint authorship is intention. The creation must be made with the intention that the contributions be merged into one work, and that intention caimot be imputed after the fact of creation if it was not there to begin with. 

Dispersion Characteristics The chief characteristics of gas-in-liquid dispersions, like those of hquid-in-gas suspensions, are heterogeneity and instabihty. The composition and structure of an unstable dispersion must be obsei ved in the dynamic situation by looking at the mixture, with or without the aid of optical devices, or by photographing it, preferably in nominal steady state photographs usually are required for quantitative treatment. Stable foams may be examined after the fact of their creation if they are sufficiently robust or if an immobilizing technique such as freezing is employed [Chang et al., Ind. Eng Chem., 48, 2035 (1956)]. 

This is a very small release rate and demonstrates that it is much more effective to prevent the release than to mitigate it after the fact. 

This case history illustrates the paradox so often encountered in microbiologically influenced corrosion. Clearly, two corrosion mechanisms were operating in the system, namely, acid attack and microbiologically influenced corrosion. To what degree each mechanism contributed to wastage is difficult to quantify after the fact. This was especially the case here, since other areas of the rolling oil system were attacked by a predominantly acidic form of corrosion. 

The CPI would benefit from the application of human factors principles to improve safety, quality, and productivity. These arise from applying quality management to get at the underlying causc-.s of errors rather than after-the-fact blame or punishment. Crosby (1984) advocates error cause... 

Nuclear PSAs tend to accept a set of initiators such as the WASH-1400 set or the EPRI set and proceed with little introspection as to completeness of the set for a specific plant. A well-known omission is sabotage. In general, earthquake and fire is treated poorly tornado is usually not addressed nor are other aspects of adverse weather such as freezing and ice storms which may have common cause potential. The record has not been too good. After the Browns Ferry fire, it was claimed that such was addressed in WASH-1400. If so, attention was only brought after the fact. The TMI-2 sequence was not addressed in the PSAs to an extent that action was taken to prevent it. 

Of course the calculations can be improved by adding extra terms until this failure is eventually corrected. However, these additional measures are only taken after the facts are known. In addition, the lengths to which theoreticians are forced to go to in order to obtain the correct experimental ordering of terms... 

The approach just outlined is after-the-fact approach to QC all defects caught in this manner are already present in the product being processed. This type of QC will usually catch defects and is necessary, but it does little to correct the basic problem(s) in production. One of the problems with add-on QC of this type is that it constitutes one of the least cost-effective ways of obtaining quality products. Quality must be built into a product from the beginning of the design that follows the FALLO approach (Fig. 1-3) it cannot be inspected into the process. The target is to control quality before a product becomes defective. 

Author s comment] Because a general rendition of the Scientific Method cannot be cast in legally watertight wording, all possible outcomes of a series of measurements and pursuant actions must be in writing before the experiments are started. This includes but is not limited to the number of additional samples and measurements, and prescriptions on how to calculate and present final results. Off-the-cuff interpretations and decisions after the fact are viewed with suspicion. 

The probe molecules of greatest historical interest in catalysis are the Hammett indicators [13]. The difficulty of making reliable visual or spectrophotometric observations of the state of protonation of these species on solids is well known. We have recently carried out the first NMR studies of Hanunett indicators on solid acids [ 14]. This was also the occasion of the first detailed collaboration between the authors of this article, and theoretical methods proved to strongly compliment the NMR experiments. The Hanunett story is told after first reviewing the application of theoretical chemistry to such problems. Central to the application of any physical method in chemistry is the process of modeling the relationship between the observables and molecular structure. However often one does this, it is rarely an exact process. One can rationalize almost any trend in isotropic chemical shift as a function of some variation in molecular structure - after the fact, but the quantitative prediction of such trends in advance defies intuition in most nontrivial cases. Even though the NMR spectrum is a function... 

Reinitzer discovered liquid crystallinity in 1888 the so-called fourth state of matter.4 Liquid crystalline molecules combine the properties of mobility of liquids and orientational order of crystals. This phenomenon results from the anisotropy in the molecules from which the liquid crystals are built. Different factors may govern this anisotropy, for example, the presence of polar and apolar parts in the molecule, the fact that it contains flexible and rigid parts, or often a combination of both. Liquid crystals may be thermotropic, being a state of matter in between the solid and the liquid phase, or they may be lyotropic, that is, ordering induced by the solvent. In the latter case the solvent usually solvates a certain part of the molecule while the other part of the molecule helps induce aggregation, leading to mesoscopic assemblies. The first thermotropic mesophase discovered was a chiral nematic or cholesteric phase (N )4 named after the fact that it was observed in a cholesterol derivative. In hindsight, one can conclude that this was not the simplest mesophase possible. In fact, this mesophase is chiral, since the molecules are ordered in... 

The prototypical form of error in the health care system that could be reduced by a systems approach is medication error. The kind of error identified in the literature—overdose of chemotherapy, injection of the wrong drug, etc.—sometimes leads to either injury or death, the kinds of harm that are the central concern of after-the-fact medical liability adjudication. Phar-macogenomics introduces not only another conception of harm—genetic risks—but also new ways of developing and prescribing drugs. 

Consumers can also take a more aggressive response, which might be to demand restitution or to try and change the market structure by campaigning for new laws, guidelines, or regulatory systems. Both of these responses can critically wound an industry. In Australia, tainted metwurst caused several known deaths and resulted in an economic boycott of the entire metwurst industry. Now, many years after the fact, the industry is still decimated. 

UML has a relationship between packages called dependency, which can be annotated as an import another relationship is called generalization. In Catalysis you must permit and track dependencies, by explicitly deciding to import a package, before you can use any of its contents. This approach is very much like the import and include schemes in programming languages. A general dependency is inferred after the fact, whereas an import is decided beforehand. 

Quality assurance is not an after-the-fact activity in Catalysis. From the onset of requirements, the method is focused on ensuring quality in intermediate deliverables and documentation and ensuring a quality final delivered product. 

Blacks are going to have problems getting research grants. When reviewing grants many of the white chemists know or have been in contact with the proposer. I call it the I m on the review board for this one and you may not be on the review board but you may know someone on the review board when I m submitting my paper. If I review yours favorably and then let you know after the fact that I have done so, then, you know what I have done and return the favor. ... 

Nor am I. But someone in that house is showering you with money so you can bull your way around the flophouses of Venice, hunting for certain women. Their names come out of this book. Once you have found them, they die. Once might be coincidence. Four times means you are as guilty as the killer. You are an accomplice both before and after the fact. Your head will roll on the Piazzetta. Where were you... 

The Kterature of Lewis add-base chemistry is loaded with incorrect concepts and wild speculations. This situation arose because imaginative chemists have attempted to explain the results of their experiments in qualitative ways. After the fact rationalizations always work-Uke the plays of Monday morning quarterbacks. Whenever the investigator is surprised, a new effect or one of the multitude available is offered as the explanation". The concept of jt-backbonding has been overworked in... 

Biocompatibility is an important consideration. Again, many unintended consequences are often found, unfortunately after the fact. In the areas of synthetic hip and knee replacement, use of alloys is often called for, yet some patients are found to have long-term allergies to certain metals present in minute amounts that eventually require replacement of the joint material. Thus, extensive testing is required before a new suture becomes commercially available. 

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