Zinc deficiency maternal

Keen, C.L., B. Lonnerdal, M.S. Golub, J.Y. Uriu-Hare, K.L. Olin, A.G. Hendrickx, and M.E. Gershwin. 1989. Influence of marginal maternal zinc deficiency on pregnancy outcome and infant status in Rhesus monkeys. Pediatric Res. 26 470-477. 

Zinc (Zn) deficiency is teratogenic in rats, and fetal skeletal defects are prominent. Embryofetal zinc deficiency secondary to changes induced by substances in maternal Zn metabolism is a well-established mechanism for developmental toxicity (29-31). Several substances, including urethane and alpha-hederin cause similar malformations as Zn deficiency in rodents. A number of mechanistic studies have shown that these substances act via an acute-phase reaction induction of metallothionein in the maternal liver which binds systemically available Zn in the pregnant animal. This results in a systemic redistribution of Zn. As a consequence the substances produce a transient but developmentally adverse Zn deficiency in the... 

Heinen F, Matern D, Pringsheim W, Leititis JU, Brandis M. Zinc deficiency in an exclusively breastfed preterm infant. Eur Pediatr 1995 154 71-5. 

Jankowski MA, Ueiu-Haee JY, Rucker RB, Rogers JM and Keen CL (1995) Maternal zinc deficiency but not copper deficiency or diabetes, results in increased embryonic cell death in the rat implications for mechanisms underlying abnormal development. Teratology 51 85-93. 

Warkany, J. and Petering, H.G. (1972) Congenital malformations of the central nervous system in rats produced by maternal zinc deficiency. Teratology 5, 319-334. 

Figure 1 Several consequences of maternal zinc deficiency during pregnancy on maternal health, fetal development, and infant health have been observed in developing and more industrialized countries. These consequences have been confirmed by randomized, placebo-controlled trials of maternal zinc supplementation. Not all of the consequences have been observed in all studies, and the reasons for inconsistent results among studies are not well understood. Determined from studies in industrialized countries only.

The original description of zinc deficiency in humans included lack of pubertal development. Spermatogenesis is a zinc-dependent process. Seminal fluid is particularly rich in zinc, and the sperm appear to accumulate zinc from this source prior to ejaculation. Zinc is also crucial for normal fetal development, and deficiency leads to abnormalities in humans and animals. Maternal zinc deficiency has been linked with pregnancy-associated morbidity, including pre-term delivery. 

The DRI for pregnancy should be met for all vitamins and minerals. Medical food is the source of many vitamins and minerals in the maternal PKU diet however, if not taken as prescribed or if the medical food does not contain a full complanent of vitamins and minerals, intakes may be low. Vitamins and minerals that are of particular concern in maternal PKU are vitamin B,2 and folate [14]. Low intakes have been correlated with increased risk of CHD. Deficiencies in zinc, iron, and vitamin B12 may be seen in MPKU as these nutrients are most often found in high-protein foods that individuals with PKU do not usually consume. Prenatal supplements or specific vitamins and mineral supplementation may be necessary if monitoring of intake and/or if nutritional biomarkers indicate a problem. 

Gallant KR, Cherian MG (1986) Influence of maternal mineral deficiency on the hepatic metallothionein and zinc in newborn rats. Biochem Cell Biol 64 8-12... 

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