Zinc-carbon batteries types

Most asian manufactured batteries arrive into the european market already installed in electrical equipment. These are mainly Japanese produced alkaline or zinc carbon s, which have similar mercury content to european batteries, or are low quality zinc carbon batteries, imported in cheap toys. The low quality zinc carbon batteries were found by chemical analysis, to be within only a few parts per million of mercury different from those manufactured in Europe. Neither of these battery types are a significant contributor to the overall european market. 

Products and Uses There are five main types lead storage batteries for autos, motorcycles, lawnmowers, and so on zinc chloride or zinc carbon batteries for calculators and clocks alkaline batteries used in cameras and radios nicklecadmium rechargable batteries that can be used repeatedly and button cell batteries used in watches and hearing aids. Batteries are not energy efficient. Their manufacture requires 50 times more energy than they will produce. 

The dry cells pictured in Figure 2.2 are common sources of electrical energy. Like the wet cell previously described, dry cells are voltaic cells. The three most common types of dry cells are the zinc-carbon battery, the alkaline battery, and the mercury battery. They differ in the substances being oxidized and reduced. 

Primary batteries have existed for over 100 years, but up to 1940, the zinc-carbon battery was the only one in wide use. During World War II and the postwar period, significant advances were made, not only with the zinc-carbon system, but with new and superior types of batteries. Capacity was improved from less than 50 Wh/kg with the early zinc-carbon batteries to more than 400 Wh/kg now obtained with lithium batteries. The shelf life of batteries at the time of World War n was limited to about 1 year when stored at moderate temperatures the shelf life of present-day conventional batteries is from 2 to 5 years. The shelf life of the newer lithium batteries is as high as 10 years, with a capability of storage at temperatures as high as 70°C. Low-temperature operation has been extended from 0 to -40C, and the power density has been improved manyfold. Special low-drain batteries using a solid electrolyte have shelf lives in excess of 20 years. 

The current estimate of annual growth for the zinc-carbon global market, through the year 2007, continues to be -i-5% per year. The expected decline in the zinc-carbon battery market was only realized in the United States with a relatively constant -2% to -5% decline in sales volume per year. This is expected to continue. Asia, emerging third world and Eastern European markets drove the global demand for the inexpensive zinc-carbon battery system. As an example, 80% of all primary batteries presently sold in Eastern and Central Europe are zinc-carbon types. Even in the United States, this system still shows substantial usage with total U.S. stdes in 1998 of 370 million dollars. " ... 

During this transitional phase, the zinc-carbon batteries can be classified into two types, Leclanche and zinc chloride. These can, in turn, be subdivided into separate general purpose and premium battery grades, in both pasted and paper-lined constructions ... 

Industrial Heavy Duty. Application Intermittent medium- to heavy-rate discharges, low to moderate cost. The industrial heavy-duty zinc-carbon battery generally has been converted to the zinc chloride system. However, some types continue to include ammonium chloride and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) as the electrolyte and synthetic electrolytic or chemical manganese dioxide (HMD or CMD) alone or in combination with natural ore as the cathode. Its separator may be of starch paste but it is typically a paste-coated paper liner type. This grade is suitable for heavy intermittent service, industrial applications, or medium-rate continuous discharge. 

Performance of zinc-carbon batteries varies depending upon the type of discharge. The performance of Leclanche batteries is significantly better when used under intermittent compared to continuous discharge conditions, because (1) a chemical recuperation reaction replaces a small portion of active ingredients during the rest periods and (2) transport phenomena redistribute reaction products. ... 

Depending on the composition of the active materials and on the manganese dioxide type employed, the OCV of freshly manufactured zinc-carbon cells with salt electrolyte varies between 1.55 and 1.85 V. It decreases during discharge and formation of the variable-composition mass. Upon prolonged storage of undischarged batteries, their OCV also decreases. 

Dry cells have been well-known for over 100 years and form the technical basis of today s modern dry cell industry. Zinc carbon cells are the most widely used of all the primary batteries worldwide because of their low cost, availability, and acceptability in various situations. The two major separator types ever used or in use are gelled paste and paper coated with cereal or other gelling agents such as methyl-cellulose. The paste type is dispensed into the zinc can, and the preformed bobbin is inserted, pushing the paste up the can walls between the zinc and the bobbin. A typical paste electrolyte uses zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, water, and starch or flour as the gelling agents. The coated-paper type uses a special paper coated with flour, starch, regenerated cellulose. 

What is reduced and what is oxidized in the ordinary zinc-carbon dry cell battery What features make the alkaline dry cell an improvement over the earlier type of dry cell battery ... 

Primary and secondary batteries Batteries are divided into two types, depending on their chemical processes. The zinc-carbon, alkaline-zinc, and silver cells are classified as primary batteries. 

In the 1950s already, the Austrian battery specialist Karl Kordesch built a rather efficient zinc air battery with a new type of carbon-air electrode. In later work at the American company Union Carbide, he developed a fuel cell with alkaline electrolyte using multilayer carbon electrodes with a small amount of platinum on the hydrogen side, and with cobalt oxide on the oxygen side. Kordesh put a battery of such foel cells into his car and was the first person to regularly use an electric car with fuel cells (Kordesch, 1963). 

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