X-ray Emission and Photo Electron Spectroscopies

In this section, spectroscopies that use higher energy electrons and photons than in standard optics are reviewed. Techniques that are directly related to the results presented below in Sections 2.4—2.6 are described, and also a short overview is given of X-ray analyses that have been selected because of their application in the analysis of biomolecules including the energetics of the metallic centers, buried interfaces in solar cells, and femtosecond time resolution. 

Among the related methods, specific experimental designs for applications are emphasized. As in-system synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy (SRPES) will be applied below for chemical analysis of electrochemically conditioned surfaces, this method will be presented first, followed by high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS), photoelectron emission microscopy (PEEM), and X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES). The latter three methods are rather briefly presented due to the more singular results, discussed in Sections 2.4-2.6, that have been obtained with them. Although ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) is an important method to determine band bendings and surface dipoles of semiconductors, the reader is referred to a rather recent article where all basic features of the method have been elaborated for the analysis of semiconductors [150]. 

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