White lead, production

The ultimate outcome of attempts at consolidating industrial production of many commodities into fewer hands in the late nineteenth century was the monopolistic trust and its successors in interest, arising from regulatory dismemberment. Lead production and marketing followed the trend. Knerr (1992) points out that the National Lead Trust, established in 1887, managed to control, by 1890, 80% of America s white lead production and 70% of the nation s red lead output. Its eventual dissolution, in turn, resulted in the National Lead Company, which managed to maintain control of 70% of white lead production into the twentieth century. 

Individual national efforts outside the United States to control lead paint production and/or use, particularly in Europe, arose out of the nineteenth century organized labor movement that accompanied the industrialization of Europe. In 1867, occupational concerns over white lead production and use resulted in the Congress of the Workers International Association while 1896 witnessed the International Workers Conference on the same topic. In 1901, the Assembly of the International Association for Labour Legislation was convened to deal with the topic of white lead. 

Review of the rules and regulations governing white lead production and use in various European countries, particularly prior to widespread adoption... 

The Sperry process for making white lead ia an electrolytic cell recovers bismuth as a by-product ia the anode slimes. 

Gaseous CO2 is extensively used to carbonate soft drinks and this use alone accounts for 20% of production. Other quasi-chemical applications are its use as a gas purge, as an inert protective gas for welding, and for the neutralization of caustic and alkaline waste waters. Small amounts are also used in the manufacture of sodium salicylate, basic lead carbonate ( white lead ), and various carbonates such as M2CO3 and M HC03 (M = Na, K, NH4, etc.). One of the most important uses of CO2 is to manufacture urea via ammonium carbamate ... 

A cohort mortality study was conducted to compare the mortality rates due to chronic renal disease in 4,519 battery plant workers and 2,300 lead production or smelter workers from 1947 to 1980 (Cooper 1988 Cooper et al. 1985). The mortality data for these workers were compared with national mortality rates for white males. Environmental lead levels and PbB levels were available for only about 30% of all workers for varying time periods from 1947 to 1972. Statistically significant increases in mortality from "other hypertensive disease" and "chronic nephritis" were seen in both lead cohorts. Limitations of this study include the fact that various confounding factors, such as smoking, were not accounted for, and the workers were probably exposed to other toxic chemicals. 

Lead, plumbum nigrum, its occurrence in connection with silver, its uses in making certain bronzes, for making lead water pipes, and in sheet form, are described by Pliny. Its oxide (Pb 0) is described under the names of molyb-daena, lithargyros, and galena, as the product of roasting lead in the air, and as produced in the furnaces where silver and gold are smelted. White lead (cerussa) and our red lead were also known and described by Pliny, much as by authorities already quoted. 

For use in medicine he directs to use only the first two preparations, though others are used in chemistry. He explains further the preparation of the waters above employed which are merely water solutions of salts named. The mortification of copper, lead, mercury and other metals is similarly described, with products such as verdigris, white lead, corrosive sublimate, or the various oxides, etc. In some cases, as with gold, the processes are elaborate but the fancied results are not capable of rational interpretation.7... 

White lead of normal composition should contain theoretically 86-33% °f PbO, 11 -35% of CO2 and 2-32% of H20. Commercial white leads usually Contain 83-5-87% PbO, 11-16% C02 and 1-2-5% H20, but those most valued, especially for their covering power, are the Ones poor in carbonate, i.e., containing 85-87% PbO, 11-12% C02 and 2-2-5% H20 samples containing more than 14% of C02 are mostly of poor quality. Loss on calcination varies from 13 to 16% and with the best products does not usually exceed 14%. 

Soluble Lead.—The nitric add solution from the preceding determination is evaporated with a little sulphuric acid first on a water-bath and then on a sand-bath until fumes of sulphuric acid appear. The cdd residue is taken up in water and the lead sulphate estimated as with white lead (q.v., paragraph 6). The lead thus found is that corresponding with the white lead contained in the product under examination. 

The production of such substances as white lead, lead sulphate, oxides, hydroxides, and sulphides of the heavy metals, can be effected by the electrolysis of a suitable solution, such as sodium (or potassium) nitrate, chloride, or sulphate, with an attackable anode and a cathode of platinum or some metal not attacked by the electrolyte. 

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