Viking 1 and

Nier A. and McElroy M. B. (1977) Composition and structure of Mars upper atmosphere results from the neutral mass spectrometers at Viking 1 and 2. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4341 350. 

The northern crust of Mars appears to be basaltic, consistent with the geomorphic evidence for basaltic plains and volcanoes. The three landers (Viking 1 and 2,... 

Niemann HB, Atreya SK, Carignan GR, Donahue TM, Haberman JA, Harpold DN, Hartle RE, Hunten DM, Kasprzak WT, Mahaffy PR, Owen TC, Way SH (1998) The composition of the Jovian atmosphere as determined by the Galileo probe mass spectrometer. J Geophys Res E 103 22831-22845 Nier AO, McElroy MB (1977) Composition and structure of Mars upper atmosphere results from the neutral mass spectrometers on Viking 1 and 2. J Geophys Res 82 4341-4349 Nier AO, Schlutter DJ (1992) Extraction of helium from individual interplanetaiy dust particles by stepheating. Meteoritics 27 166-173... 

First Mars prohes The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launches Viking 1 and Viking 2, which land on obtain images of Mars. 

The first successful landing on Mars was made by the two NASA Mars Viking 1 and 2 landers in 1976. Included in the payload were a gas chromatograph, mass spectrometer. X-ray fluorimeter, and three life detection instruments. Additional surface missions in 1997 (Pathfinder/Sojoumer Rover) and 2004 (Opportunity and... 

Many measurements were made to determine the content of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars. Some examples are the MAWD (Mars Atmospheric Water Detector) on board of Viking 1 and Viking 2 orbiters or measurements made with Mars Global Surveyor Mission and Mars Express. Very often the IR band about 1.38 pm was used. Such measurements are important input factors for understanding the annual water cycle on Mars. For example Fedorova et al., 2010 [128] report on Viking observation of water vapor on Mars explaining some discrepancies of the results obtained by different instruments. 

The story whether there is water on Mars or not and if yes, how much, is not completely finished yet. As we have stated, the debate started more than 100 years ago by the observations of the canali which turned out to be artifacts caused by blurring effects in our atmosphere. In 1976 the first unmanned spacecrafts landed on the martian surface (Viking 1 and Viking 2). Mars appeared as a dry, rocky desert with no signs of water. 

Fig. 20. Comparison of DSMC prediction and Viking 1 flight data for the ratio of force coefficients (from Blanchard et al. ).

Larsen K. W., Arvidson R. E., Jolliflf B. L., and Clark B. C. (2000) Correspondence and least squares analyses of soil and rock compositions for the Viking Lander 1 and Pathfinder landing sites. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 29207-29221. 

The Mars Pathfinder probe landed on Mars on July 4,1997. Pathfinder was second in the Discovery series of robotic spacecraft, which the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began to develop in the mid 1990s. Costing an average of 150 million per project, the Discovery shift to faster, cheaper, less-ambitious probes was prompted by the catastrophic failure in 1993 of the 1-billion Mars Observer mission. Pathfinder was the third spacecraft ever to land successfully on Mars NASA s Viking I and Viking II spacecraft... 

The X-ray fluorescent spectrometer sent with the Viking 1 spacecraft to Mars shows that the Martian soil contains about 12 to 16% iron, 14 to 15% silicon, 3 to 8% calcium, 2 to 7% aluminum, and one-half to 2% titanium. The gas chromatograph — mass spectrometer on Viking II found no trace of organic compounds that should be present if life ever existed there. 

Figure 1. Image of the Solarius Viking profilometer and table of available sensors...

Mass spectrometers were an integral component in the scientific payload of Viking Landers 1 and 2 and were designed to measure the composition and structure of Mars upper atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the major constituent of the atmosphere, whilst the isotopic composition of C and O in the Martian atmosphere is similar to that of the terrestrial atmosphere. However, is enriched in Mars atmosphere by approximately a factor of 1.6. Certain meteorites have been identified as samples from the Martian crust. These SNC meteorites, including the orthopyroxenite ALH84001, on which claims for the evidence of life on Mars have been based, have produced a large quantity of isotopic evidence which has been used in conjunction with the Viking Lander data. Since meteorites are delivered to our doorstep. 

Harpur, Patrick. Daimonic reality a field guide to the other world. Viking, 1994 reprint, London, New York Arkana, 1995. xxi, 330 p. ISBN 0-14-019485-1 "Mysterious lights in the sky, phantom animals, visions of the Virgin Mary, UFO s, fairies, alien abductions Daimonic Reality makes sense of these apparitions and... 

Rye Breads. The British consumer, in general, does not like the taste of rye bread. Most of the rye bread made in the UK is for the benefit of immigrant communities that traditionally eat rye bread. In Scandinavia, Central and Eastern Europe, rye breads are eaten as a delicacy not as a substitute for wheat bread. It has been recorded that the Vikings brought rye bread to Britain but they were an immigrant group. 

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