Venom apparatus

The cx)ne snails are predatory, venomous molluscs which use a common general strategy to capture prey (i, 5-7). All 300-500 species of Conus have a specialized venom apparatus, diagrammed in Figure 1 (8). A venom paralytic to the prey is produced in a venom duct and injected through a disposable, harpoon-like tooth (Figure 2). Paralysis of the prey can be remarkably rapid in the case of certain piscivorous cone species, the fish prey is immobilized in less than one second. 

The order Mesogastropoda contains the family Conidae (400 species) whose venom apparatus consists of a barbed hollow tooth through which venom is expressed from a venom duct using a bulb as the source of pressure see Chapter 20 in this volume). The cone shells, as discussed previously, are divided on the basis of their prey species be it fish, worms, or other shellfish. 

Blum MS, Hermann HR (1978) Venoms and venom apparatuses of the Formicidae. In Bettini S (ed) Arthropod venoms. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, p 801... 

About 250 fish species possess various kinds of venom apparatus. The stingray and scorpion fish belong in this category. Stingrays have a... 

Ichthyocrinotoxic Fishes. Those fishes that produce a poison by means of glandular structures, independent of a true venom apparatus, i.e., poison glands are present but there is no trauma-genic device. 

Since some alkaloids exhibit great mammalian toxicity (e.g., batrachotoxin, samandarine), it is obvious that these compounds are capable of initiating severe biochemical and physiological lesions. However, it should not be overlooked that toxicological evaluations of most alkaloids have been implemented by in vitro studies in which the alkaloids have been introduced subcutaneously. On the other hand, in nature, in the absence of a venom apparatus, these compounds would be... 

I. Mechanism of toxicity. The venoms of Hymenoptera are complex mixtures of enzymes and are delivered by various methods. The venom apparatus is located in the posterior abdomen of the females. 

Halstead, B. W., Kuninobu, L. S., and Hebard, H. G., 1953, Catfish stings and venom apparatus of the Mexican catfish Galeichthys felis (Linnaeus), Trans. Am. microsc. Soc., 72 297. 

Maschwitz, U. W. J. and Kloft, W. (1971) Morphology and function of the venom apparatus of insects - bees, wasps, ants and caterpillars. In Venomous Animals and their Venoms, Vol. 3 (Bilcherl, W. and Buckley, E. E., ed.) pp. 1-60. Academic Press, New York. 

Blum, M. S. and Hermann, H. R. (1978a) Venoms and venom apparatuses of the Formicidae Myrmeciinae, Ponerinae, Dorylinae, Pseudomyrmecinae, Myrmicinae and Formicinae. In Arthropod Venoms (Bettini, S., ed.) Springer, Berlin. 

Marine snails belonging to the genus Conus are venomous predators that immobilize their prey by a highly specialized venom apparatus. The venom which is of proteinaceous or peptide nature is injected into the prey by means of a disposable hollow tooth which serves both as harpoon and hypodermic needle. A number of human fatalities have resulted from the sting of Conus geographus. 

As the nudibranchs and the sea hares derive most of the substances which have been isolated from them from their food, the chemistry of these molluscs will be reviewed in two separate chapters. A third chapter deals with the constituents of Conidae because of their specialized venom apparatus which contains proteins and peptides. 

Robertson, P.L., 1968, A morphological and functional study of the venom apparatus in representatives of some major groups of Hymenoptera. Aust. J. Zool. 16 133-166. 

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