Universal scope

Among the methods for synthesis of six-membered heteroarenes, cyclocondensations are applied in a nearly universal scope, less frequently used are cycloaddition (e.g. for pyridines) and ring transformation reactions (e.g. for quinolines and isoquinolines). For partially unsaturated and saturated heterocycles special methods (e.g. SnI processes for piperidines, 1,4-dioxanes or morpholines) are available. 

But, it has been trenchantly argued, if the domain of a theory is properly taken to be the class of happenings in the world the theory can actually desctibe and explain, then foundational physical theories have no such universal scope. First, consider the fact that for most of what we want desctibed and explained in the world, such theories have no applicability at all. Who ever provided a description of the behavior of a chimpanzee, say, in terms of relativistic quantum field theory, and who ever explained failure of competitive equilibrium in markets with natural monopolistic aspects, say, by reference to the elementary particles of the world and their dynamics in spacetime ... 

Such patent pluralism in our methods of description and explanation, a pluralism acknowledged by all, has led many to the conclusion that one ought to dismiss once and for all any claims of unlimited, universal scope for the foundational theories. And if these theories are so limited in their capacity for description and explanation, ought one not take their purported ontological claims as limited to restricted domains as well ... 

As noted above, flow FFF is not limited to aqueous systems. Using a solvent-compatible cellulose nitrate membrane, we have shown that polystyrenes can be fractionated in an ethylbenzene carrier by flow FFF, as shown in Figure 8.16. The universal scope of flow FFF is further confirmed by noting that this subtechnique has been applied to samples as varied as virus particles, silica colloids, polystyrene beads, humic materials, proteins, and protein aggregates. 

There seem to be two main characteristics of the logic of law statements. First they are supposed to cover every case in a certain domain of phenomena. Let us refer to this as the universal scope of the law. When exceptions turn up there are strategies for preserving the law by restructuring the domain to which it is germane. Laws are presumed to be conjoined with tacit ceteris paribus conditions. Second, natural law statements are supposed to express a necessity that which a law of nature expresses could not have been otherwise. Let us refer to this feature as the modality of the law. 

The astrochemistty of ions may be divided into topics of interstellar clouds, stellar atmospheres, planetary atmospheres and comets. There are many areas of astrophysics (stars, planetary nebulae, novae, supemovae) where highly ionized species are important, but beyond the scope of ion chemistry . (Still, molecules, including H2O, are observed in solar spectra [155] and a surprise in the study of Supernova 1987A was the identification of molecular species, CO, SiO and possibly ITf[156. 157]. ) In the early universe, after expansion had cooled matter to the point that molecules could fonn, the small fraction of positive and negative ions that remained was crucial to the fomiation of molecules, for example [156]... 

Some 20 years after the pressure for the creation of the new interdisciplinary laboratories was first felt, one of the academics who became involved very early on. Prof. Rustum Roy of Pennsylvania State University, wrote eloquently about the underlying ideal of interdisciplinarity (Roy 1977). He also emphasised the supportive role played by some influential industrial scientists in that creation, notably Dr. Guy Suits of GE, whom we have already encountered, and Dr. William Baker of Bell Laboratories who was a major force in pushing for interdisciplinary materials research in industry and academe alike. A magisterial survey by Baker (1967), under the title Solid State Science and Materials Development, indicates the breadth and scope of his scientific interests. 

In 1934, French chemist Hoch reported that the action of phenylmagnesium bromide on the oxime of propiophenone (3) at elevated temperature gave two products. One was aziridine 4 and the other was erroneously assigned as hydroxylamine 5. In the subsequent years (1939 onward), Campbell at the University of Notre Dame determined that the purported hydroxylamine 5 was actually P-hydroxylamine 6. The scope of the Grignard reagents was extended to both aryl and aliphatic Grignard reagents. 

In 1908, while working at University of Heidelberg, Auwers and Muller described the transformation of 4-methyl-2-cumaranone (3) to flavanol 6. Thus aldol condensation of 3 with benzaldehyde gave benzylidene derivative 4, which was brominated to give dibromide 5. Subsequent treatment of 5 with alcoholic KOH then furnished 2-methylflavonol 6. In the following years, Auwers published more extensively on the scope and limitations of this reaction. ... 

Most outages are comprised of multiple wish lists that are generated by operations, plant engineering and maintenance. In most cases, these lists contain poorly defined tasks with little or no attempt to prioritize them. These lists must be consolidated, prioritized and a universally acceptable scope of work defined. The steps required to create this scope of work include ... 

In an attempt to widen the scope of this work, unpublished information has been sought from many sources, both by published appeals and correspondence. In this latter area, the contribution made by a friend, the late Mr A. Kruk-Schuster, of Laboratory Chemicals Disposal Company, Ltd., Billericay, has been outstanding. During 1965-1968 his literature work and global letter campaign to 2000 University chemistry departments and industrial institutions yielded some 300 contributions. 

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