United States from plumbing

Low levels of hexachlorobutadiene (less than 1 ppb) may be found in drinking water (EPA 1989a). Finished drinking water samples from two U.S. cities were found to contain 1.6 ppt and 2.7 ppt, respectively (Lucas 1984). Hexachlorobutadiene was also detected in groundwater at 6 of 479 waste disposal sites in the United States (Plumb 1991). 

Potable water should be supplied under continuous positive pressure in a plumbing system free from defects that could lead to the contamination of APIs or intermediates. Potable water should meet the standards prescribed in the Environmental Protection Agency s Primary Drinking Water Regulations (Title 40, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 141). Potable water in facilities outside the United States should meet comparable standards of the European Union, Japan, the World Health Organization, or other authorities. Drains should be of adequate size and provided with an air break or suitable mechanical device to prevent back-siphonage. 

A burn injury that may be caused by the direct exposure to hot liquid, steam, or a hot gas. It is estimated that hot water scalds account for 20 percent of all burns. Approximately 2000 children in the United States are treated for scald burns each year. A contributing factor is that children have not fully developed the thickness of their skin therefore, they burn faster than adnlts. Scalding incidents occur most frequently in bathrooms and kitchens. The International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials have amended the Uniform Plnmbing Code to require antiscald protection. Some manufactures offer an anti-scald thermostatic mixing valve to be installed in the hot water supply line to prevent inadvertent scalding water from reaching end-point devices in domestic water installations. 

The third and final force was the law. Throughout the nineteenth century, courts in England and the United States refused to hold urban water providers, whether publicly or privately owned, liable for any harm that might have resulted from the use of lead water pipes. Because the courts held homeowners liable for damages, there were limited incentives for public water providers to adopt measures protecting consumers from lead exposure related to service pipes, and household plumbing more generally (see chapter 7). 

From a health standpoint, the most significant metal that can enter the drinking water via corrosion is lead. The contribution of drinking water to the total daily intake of lead in the United States is estimated to be approximately 20 percent. In drinking water, the primary sources of lead are lead service lines, lead plumbing, brass fixtures, and 50 50 tin-lead solder used to join copper piping. Lead enters the water when the water has been standing motionless in contact with the lead source for extended time periods. 

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