United Kingdom development

The scientists at Leatherhead Eood Research (United Kingdom) developed an instrument to measure viscosity of oil. The principle of its operation is similar to that of a tuning fork. Dampening of the vibration of the tuning fork-like device depends on the viscosity, and resonance depends on the density of the surrounding fluid. Although the instmment was simple to operate, the actual determination of oil quality was difficult for the restaurant operators. 

Among all PHA polymers existing, PHB, its copolymers, and PHBV are today the most widely commercially available. The first commercialization of PHB is found back in the 1950s by W.R. Grace Co., USA, but the trial soon failed [27], Subsequently in the 1970s, Imperial Chemical Industries [ICI], United Kingdom, developed... 

Professor James Reason and his colleagnes from the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom developed a conceptnal and theoretical approach to the safety of large, complex, socio-technical systems. Drawing on the work of Reasort, ICAM identifies the workplace factors that contribute to an incident and the organizational deficiencies within the system that act as its precirrsors. 

UNITED KINGDOM (UK). The United Kingdom developed nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons. Of these, only chemical weapons (CW) were ever used in combat. Britain no longer has a stockpile of any biological weapons (BW) or CW, but it does possess a nuclear weapon stockpile, estimated to be in excess of 200. 

Fluorine was first produced commercially ca 50 years after its discovery. In the intervening period, fluorine chemistry was restricted to the development of various types of electrolytic cells on a laboratory scale. In World War 11, the demand for uranium hexafluoride [7783-81-5] UF, in the United States and United Kingdom, and chlorine trifluoride [7790-91 -2J, CIF, in Germany, led to the development of commercial fluorine-generating cells. The main use of fluorine in the 1990s is in the production of UF for the nuclear power industry (see Nuclearreactors). However, its use in the preparation of some specialty products and in the surface treatment of polymers is growing. 

LPC Processes. Process development for LPC production dates from the United Kingdom and Hungary from 1920—1940 (89,90). Table 9 presents some of the processing methods that are used or under development in the 1990s. 

The Vickers hardness test, developed in the United Kingdom, is more popular there than in the United States. VHN (Vickers hardness number) and DPH (diamond pyramid hardness) are synonymous terms. 

Alloy development in the former Soviet Union has produced alloys having strengths equivalent to IN-100 and Mar-M-200. Alloys developed in the United States and United Kingdom are also widely used in French aircraft engines. 

In Europe, 1. G. Earbenindustrie decided to develop nylon-6 that had been synthesized from S-caprolactam using an aminocaproic acid catalyst (1) and commercially introduced as Pedon L in 1940 (11,12). 1. G. Earbenindustrie had evaluated over 3000 polyamide constituents without finding an improvement over nylon-6 and nylon-6,6 (13). In Italy, Societa Rhodiaceta started making nylon-6,6 in 1939. In the United Kingdom, ICl and Courtaulds formed British Nylon Spinners in 1940 and started to manufacture nylon-6,6 in 1941. 

The success has been primarily due to the developments that occurred in the eady 1970s (3) at the University of Dundee (United Kingdom) where it was demonstrated that a device-quaUty amorphous siUcon semiconductor (i -Si) could be produced with the following features low concentration of defects, high photosensitivity, abiUty to be doped, and no size limitation. 

Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States shared ahke in the early development of stainless steels. In the United Kingdom in 1912, during the search for steel that would resist fouling in gun barrels, a corrosion-resistant composition containing 12.8% chromium and 0.24% carbon was reported. It was suggested that this composition be used for cutiery. In fact, the composition of AISI Type 420 steel (12—14% chromium, 0.15% carbon) is similar to that of the first corrosion-resistant steel. 

Deposits of celestite in Gloucestershire, the United Kingdom, represented the main source of the world supply from 1884 to 1941 and provided up to 90% of the world strontium supply (4). During World War II, shipments to the United States and Western Europe from the United Kingdom were dismpted, and celestite deposits in Mexico and Spain were developed. 

In the late 1980s, Brodie crystalHsers were installed in the United Kingdom and in France for upgrading phthaHc-grade naphthalene to 99% purity or better. This apparatus, developed by Union Carbide Corporation, AustraHa, for separating o- and -dichlorobensene, was adapted for naphthalene refining. The one installed in the United Kingdom, however, has been closed (21) (see Naphthalene). 

Although a number of low temperature processes have been studied, only a few have been used commercially. These have been limited in the types of coal that are acceptable, and the by-products are less valuable than those obtained from high temperature processing. The Disco process is used in the United States to supply a limited amount of fuel to meet requirements of smoke ordinances. The British CoaUte and Rexco processes produced substantial amounts of domestic smokeless fuel. Development of fluid-bed methods of carbonizing finer coal at ca 400°C has been studied in the United Kingdom. A reactive char is briquetted without a binder to produce a premium open-fire smokeless fuel. 

Other variations of catalytic and noncatalytic coal Hquefaction schemes were also developed (27,28). Additionally, bench-scale and semiworks systems have been operated in Germany by researchers at Bergbau-Forschung in Essen (29). A 2.5 ton per day pilot plant is being operated by the National Coal Board in the United Kingdom at Point of Ayr in Wales (30). This facdity is notable for the use of semibatch or candle filters for removal of mineral matter and unreacted coal from the primary Hquefaction products. 

British and U.S. courts began developing case law to protect trademarks against infringement in the early 1800s. In 1883, the United Kingdom adopted a statute that provided for registration of fancy words as trademarks. The United States enacted its first federal trademark statute in 1870, but the statute was declared unconstitutional in 1879. Subsequent federal trademark statutes were adopted in the United States in 1881, 1905, and 1920 the present comprehensive statute, known as the Lanham Act, was enacted in 1946. The Lanham Act was substantially revised for the first time in 1988 by the Trademark Law Revision Act of 1988. The 1988 act, which became effective on November 16, 1989, both modified and supplemented the earHer statute. 

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