Temperature measurement 976 meteorology

See also Barometry Climate Engineering Climate Modeling Climatology Measurement and Units Meteorology Remote Sensing Temperature Measurement. 

In addition, sea surface temperature measurements have been obtained from 1995 to 2001 at platforms located several hundreds of kilometers to the north and north-west of the harbor mouth in the North Sea (along the path of the relevant storm systems approaching the Port of Rotterdam). These were available as 24-h averaged daily values. Vertical profiles of air temperature and other meteorological parameters, obtained from balloon measurements, were available at the North Sea at Ekoftsk platform every 12 or 24 h. 

Measurements of wind, turbulence, and temperature aloft may also be made at various heights on meteorological towers taller than 10 m. WTiere possible, the sensors should be exposed on a boom at a distance from the tower equal to two times the diameter of the tower at that height. 

Critical meteorological variables were not always measured, especially vertical wind and temperature gradients. 

Data are provided as measured data or prepared data, representing typical data for a period of several years. Design reference years (DRY) established using methods developed with the framework of the lEA (International Energy Agency) represent characteristic data for a period of 10 years, condensed into a one-year data set. Internal coherence, e.g., between solar irradiation and air temperature, is maintained. For the United States, typical meteorological year (TMY) files are based on measurements in the period 1954 through 1972. 

Fig. 2 Time-series of annual mean water temperature in the San Reservoir (Spain) and air temperature in the Ter River watershed. The series start in 1964, after the first filling of the reservoir. Annual means are based on monthly measures of the volume weighted mean temperature. Only years with at least 10 temperature profiles were included in the figure. The air temperatures are annual means for the whole Ter River watershed, calculated from data collected in several meteorological stations in the basin, and weighted according to their area of influence...

Other data such as light intensity, percentage cloud cover, and soil moisture may also be recorded. The use of meteorological equipment, which can measure critical climatic information such as wind speed (current, maximum and average), humidity, air temperature, and dew-forming point, is preferable in the field. Historic weather data in the form of 10-year averages must be reported and are required for comparison of the trial specific data with the normal weather data. 

Mean values of 1961-1990 are from the Sundsvall Airport, located about 30 km from the snow cooling plant. There was good correlation between measured air temperature and precipitation and values from the airport climate station, compared during 60 days the summer of2000. The airport climate station is run by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. 

Paleotemperatures derived from noble gas analyses are potentially more meaningful than those from oxygen-deuterium analyses because the noble gas content is a direct measure of the temperature of the water at the time of infiltration rather than a complex function of geographic and meteorological factors as is the case with 2H and 180. Despite this potential superiority, few noble gas studies of water paleotemperatures have been published. Specifically, questions need to be answered relative... 

Perhaps the most direct experimental means of examining the relationship between emissions and air quality is to simulate atmospheric conditions using large chambers. Measured concentrations of the primary pollutants are injected into these environmental (or smog) chambers, as they are called. These are then irradiated with sunlight or lamps used to mimic the sun, and the time-concentration profiles of the primary pollutants as well as the resulting secondary pollutants are measured. The primary pollutant concentrations as well as temperature, relative humidity, and so on can be systematically varied to establish the relationship between emissions and air quality, free from the complexities of continuously injected pollutant emissions and meteorology, both of which complicate the interpretation of ambient air data. 

Figure 2. The temperature and pressure distribution of the stratosphere. The solid line is from reference 7, and the dashed lines are from measurements made by the Meteorological Measurement System (MMS) instrument on the NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft during the AAOE mission in 1987 (8) and the AASE mission in 1989 (9). The Arctic was colder in 1989 than usual.

For case studies that compare model results with in situ observations we apply a nudging technique to ECHAM. At each time step ECHAM is relaxed towards ECMWF analyzed distributions of surface pressure, vorticity, divergence and temperature [35]. This enables the simulation of realistic meteorological situations so that simulated distributions of chemical species can be directly compared with measurement data for a specific time and place, thus... 

METSAT-1 Meteorological satellite launched on September 12, 2002, equipped with a scanning radiometer that has a resolution of 2 x 2 km to measure clouds, temperature, and water content in the atmosphere. 

Fig. 14.4 Meteorological data measured on a floating platform moored on Lake Calado air temperature (2-hr averages), 1983, and wind speed (1-hr averages), 1984 a short gap in the wind record occurred around day 275. J. M. Melack, unpublished data.

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