Swarm complexes

S.2 Synthesis of Pol3n otaxanes with the Use of Swarm Complexes and... 

To determine the efficiency of ordering of macrocycles in a swarm complex and its effrct on polyrotaxane synthesis, we studied styrene polymerization in the presence both of a complex of cyclourethanes with ZnCl (method with elements of directionality) and of cyclic urethanes (statistical method) The structure of tl compoimds... 

Such a local arrangement of cydes along die chain is typical both for a statistical polyrotaxane and for a polyrotaxane prepared by styrene polymerization in the presence of swarm complexes of cyclourethanes with ZnClj. For the latter, portions with a higher coiKentratioo of cycles can be attributed to the swarm structure of complexes, while for a statistical polyrotaxane sudi a structure appears to be due to that the initial cyclourethanes are orirated with respect to one another into ordered formations with the aid of intermolecular hydrograi bonds. The lengtii of the format tions is shorter than in swarm cornices. 

Swarm is a multi-agent simulation platform for the study of complex adaptive systems. It is currently under development at the Santa Fe Institute ... 

Swarm has been intentionally designed to include as few ad-hoc assumptions about the design of a complex system as possible, so as to provide a convenient, reliable and standardized set of software tools that can be tailored by researchers to specific systems. 

Hierarchical Structure. In order to be better able to simulate the hierarchical nature of many real-world complex systems, in which agent behavior can itself be best described as being the result of the collective behavior of some swarm of constituent agents. Swarm is designed so that agents themselves can be swarms of other agents. Moreover, Swarm is designed around a time hierarchy, Thus, Swarm is both a nested hierarchy of swarms and a nested hierarchy of schedules. 

Recent studies on heat- and mass-transfer to and from bubbles in liquid media have primarily been limited to studies of the transfer mechanism for single moving bubbles. Transfer to or from swarms of bubbles moving in an arbitrary liquid field is very complex and has been analyzed theoretically in certain simple cases only (G3, G5, G6, G8, M3, R9, Wl). 

Most studies on heat- and mass-transfer to or from bubbles in continuous media have primarily been limited to the transfer mechanism for a single moving bubble. Transfer to or from swarms of bubbles moving in an arbitrary fluid field is complex and has only been analyzed theoretically for certain simple cases. To achieve a useful analysis, the assumption is commonly made that the bubbles are of uniform size. This permits calculation of the total interfacial area of the dispersion, the contact time of the bubble, and the transfer coefficient based on the average size. However, it is well known that the bubble-size distribution is not uniform, and the assumption of uniformity may lead to error. Of particular importance is the effect of the coalescence and breakup of bubbles and the effect of these phenomena on the bubble-size distribution. In addition, the interaction between adjacent bubbles in the dispersion should be taken into account in the estimation of the transfer rates... 

The immune system is equal in complexity to the combined intricacies of the brain and nervous system. The success of the immune system in defending the body relies on a dynamic regulatory communications network consisting of millions and millions of cells. Organized into sets and subsets, these cells pass information back and forth like clouds of bees swarming around a hive. The result is a sensitive system of checks and balances that produces an immune response that is prompt, appropriate, effective, and self-limiting. 

As Fig. 2.4 illustrates, a cation can associate with a surface as an inner sphere, or outer-sphere complex depending on whether a chemical, i.e., a largely covalent bond, between the metal and the electron donating oxygen ions, is formed (as in an inner-sphere type solute complex) or if a cation of opposite charge approaches the surface groups within a critical distance as with solute ion pairs the cation and the base are separated by one (or more) water molecules. Furthermore, ions may be in the diffuse swarm of the double layer. 

Surface complex formation of an ion (e.g., cation) on the hydrous oxide surface. The ion may form an inner-sphere complex ("chemical bond"), an outer-sphere complex (ion pair) or be in the diffuse swarm of the electric double layer. (From Sposito, 1989)... 

Fig. b shows a schematic portrayal of the hydrous oxide surface, showing planes associated with surface hydroxyl groups ("s"), inner-sphere complexes ("a"), outer-sphere complexes ("P") and the diffuse ion swarm ("d"). (Modified from Sposito, 1984)... 

The anions Cl, NO3, CIO, for some oxides also SO " and SeO are considered to adsorb mainly in outer-sphere complexes and as diffuse ion swarm. 

In a more restrictive sense, the term "ion exchange" is used to characterize the replacement of one adsorbed, readily exchangeable ion by another. This circumscription, used in soil science (Sposito, 1989), implies a surface phenomenon involving charged species in outer-sphere complexes or in the diffuse ion swarm. It is not possible to adhere rigorously to this conceptualization because the distinction between inner-sphere and outer-sphere complexation is characterized by a continuous transition, (e.g., H+ binding to humus). 

There are a number of more loosely defined terms for different types of adsorption that are related to the form of surface complexation. Specifically adsorbed ions are held in inner-sphere complexes whereas non-specifically adsorbed ions are in outer-sphere complexes or the diffuse-ion swarm. Readily exchangeable... 

The Seven Mysteries of Life by Guy Murchie Butterfly Economics A New General Theory of Social and Economic Behavior by Paul Omerod Paul Ormerod, Swarm Intelligence From Natural to Artificial Systems by Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo Guy Theraulaz, Hidden Order How Adaptation Builds Complexity by John H. Holland Heather Mimnaugh, Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams by Mitchel Resnick The Evolution of Cooperation by Robert Axelrod. 

II Hypothallus complex, erect, simple, branched or poroid sporangia spore-like, stalked, giving rise on germination to eight swarm-... 

Another point in favor of the simpler, but less accurate, fluid approach is that discharge diagnostics are still quite primitive. In studies of electron and ion swarms, experimentalists routinely measure mobilities and diffusiv-ities with a precision in the order of a few percent. A sophisticated model must be used to properly interpret such experiments. However, for discharges, even relative concentration profiles for a few of the dozens of important neutral and charged species are difficult to attain. Thus, an overly complex and expensive model is probably inappropriate, and the fluid model is a good compromise at present. 

The constant-capacitance model (Goldberg, 1992) assigns all adsorbed ions to inner-sphere surface complexes. Since this model also employs the constant ionic medium reference state for activity coefficients, the background electrolyte is not considered and, therefore, no diffuse-ion swarm appears in the model structure. Activity coefficients of surface species are assumed to sub-divide, as in the triplelayer model, but the charge-dependent part is a function of the overall valence of the surface complex (Zk in Table 9.8) and an inner potential at the colloid surface exp(Z F l,s// 7). Physical closure in the model is achieved with the surface charge-potential relation ... 

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