Study of the structure and morphology

In this paper, the authors present the results of studying of the structural and morphological changes that occur after UV and visible laser irradiation of layered organic-inorganic composites zinc and copper synthesized by laser ablation in liquid. The S5mthesized materials are the second and third group composites. Their structural formulas are as follows (M)2(OH)3X x z X H O and (M)(OH)2X x z x H O, where M - divalent metals (Zn, Cu) and X - intercalated anion - alkyl sulfate where n = 12. 

STM and AFM are powerful tools for the in situ studies of the structure and morphology of electrode interface and have been used to characterize IL electrode interface as well [60]. These techniques are known to routinely achieve atomic resolution images in high vacuum conditions [160] and even in air. However, in situ... 

Microscopy is the study of fine structure and morphology of polymers with the use of a microscope [1-4]. In polymer science the term morphology refers to form and organization on a size scale above the atomic arrangement, but smaller than the size and shape of the whole sample. 

Finally, we addressed the complex problem of carbon corrosion, which is particularly relevant for PEMFC durability and thus commercialization of PEMFC technology. Carbon supports with an ordered crystalline structure, such as graphi-tized carbons, CNTs, and CNFs, as well as pyrolytic carbons of the Sibunit family hold out hope for the development of CLs with higher durability. More systematic studies are required to unveil the complex influence of the structure and morphology of carbon supports on the performance of the CLs and eventually, to develop a new generation of structurally ordered tailored materials for PEMFC applications with enhanced catalytic activities, low noble metal contents, and high dmabilities. 

These questions are the basis of polymer morphology, which may be defined as the study of the structure and relationships of polymer chains on a scale large compared with that of the individual repeat unit or the unit cell, i.e. on the scale at which the polymer chains are often represented simply by lines to indicate the path of the backbone through various structures. In addition to the four questions above, morphology is concerned with such matters as the directions of the chain axes with respect to the crystallite faces and with the relationship between the crystallites and the non-crystalline material, a particular aspect of which is the nature of the crystalline-amorphous interface. Sections 5.2-5.5 are concerned... 

Theteehniqueof chromatography with a mobile gas phase widely employed in the separation and analysis of complex mixtures of volatile organic compounds has extended its application during the past 18 to 20 years to determinations of the structure and morphology of the polymeric stationary phases and also to studies of the thermodynamic properties of polymer solutions. 

The crystallization from dilute solutions has been used extensively to study the fundamental aspects of the structure and morphology at a molecular level [1-12,29]. On the other hand, the crystallization from the melt is more complex, because diffusion and kinetic effects can often dominate, but it is closer to the solidification conditions applied during processing operations. 

The importance of hydrophobic binding interactions in facilitating catalysis in enzyme reactions is well known. The impact of this phenomenon in the action of synthetic polymer catalysts for reactions such as described above is significant. A full investigation of a variety of monomeric and polymeric catalysts with nucleophilic sites is currently underway. They are being used to study the effect of polymer structure and morphology on catalytic activity in transacylation and other reactions. 

Also the surface of hydrophilic SiO substrate was confirmed to be smooth and amorphous, based on morphological and ED studies, respectively. Therefore, the crystallographic study of the monolayer and the surface characteristics of the substrate indicate that the hydrophilic SiO substrate is suitable for the electron microscopic morphological and structural investigations on the monolayer on the water surface. Then, the monolayer was transferred onto the hydrophilic SiO substrate by the upward drawing method[3,15] at a transfer rate of 60 mm-min 1 at various TSps and pressures, except at the surface pressure of 0 mN-nr1. The monolayer at 0 mN-nr1 can be transferred only by a horizontal lifting methodf 16). 

Recent unpublished studies by Boatman and Luchtel (personal communication) in rabbits show that the mucus field is indeed continuous in the medium and smaller airways. Their morphologic techniques are currently being extended to the large airways. Differences in techniques may account for the discrepancy between this work and that of Van As and Webster. Further studies of the structure of the mucus layer in animals are therefore needed to resolve the continuity-discontinuity question. 

The knowledge of the structure and the morphology of the metal clusters is necessary if we want to understand the reaction kinetics at the atomic level. The more versatile technique to study the structure and the morphology of supported metal cluster is TEM. It can provide directly the structure and the epitaxial relationships on a collection of clusters in the diffraction mode. By High Resolution TEM it is possible to get this information at the level of one cluster [83]. By using high-resolution profile imaging it is possible to measure the lattice distortion at the interface [84], These capabilities are very unique for TEM. Such structural information can be obtained in situ by diffraction techniques but only on a collection of clusters [14, 29]. To illustrate the structural characterization by TEM we present the case of Pd clusters on MgO(l 0 0), which will be discussed in the next sections. 

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