Catalysts polymeric

Several major techniques of enzyme immobilization are used. An important one is covalent bonding of the enzyme to the support material. Such attachment usually consists of reacting some functional group of the enzyme, not active in the enzymatic process, with a functional group on another polymer that is the carrier. Hydrophilic groups are preferred for reactions with enzymes in aqueous media. 

An immobilization of an enzyme on cellulose with azide groups attached can serve as an illustration. Carboxymethyl cellulose is the starting material  

In other techniques, the protein may be bound by some copolymer of maleic anhydride, where the anhydride groups react with some available amine groups on the enzjme. Yet other techmques may utihze cyanunc chlonde  

Polyaminostyrene can be diazotized or treated with thiophosgene and then used in enzyme immobilization  

There are also many uses for nonenzymatic polymeric catalysts. For instance, polymer-bound crown ethers, cryptates, and channel compounds behave as polymeric phase-transfer catalysts. The catalytic activity is based on selective complex formation. An example is the use of polystyrene-attached oxygen heterocycles [18]-crown-6 or a cryptand[222] to catalyze replacements of bromine in n-octyl bromide by an iodine or by a cyanide groups 

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TMED, (CH3)2NCH2CH2N(CH3)2. B.p. 122 C a hygroscopic base which forms a hydrocarbon-soluble stable chelate with lithium ions and promotes enhanced reactivity of compounds of lithium, e.g. LiAlH4, UC4H9, due to enhanced kinetic basicity of the chelate. Used in polymerization catalysts, tetramethyl lead, TML 5 lead tetramethyl. 

Benzoyl peroxide Direct sunlight, sparks and open flames, shock and friction, acids, alcohols, amines, ethers, reducing agents, polymerization catalysts, metallic naph-thenates... 

A freshly made solution behaves as a strong monobasic acid. Neutralized solutions slowly become acidic because of hydrolysis to monofluorophosphoric acid and hydrofluoric acid. The anhydrous acid undergoes slow decomposition on distillation at atmospheric pressure, reacts with alcohols to give monofluorophosphoric acid esters, and is an alkylation (qv) and a polymerization catalyst. 

Reaction conditions must be controlled since HF is also an excellent polymerization catalyst. Controlled reaction conditions can alternatively lead to vinyl fluoride or to HFC-152a (CH2CHF2). The latter can be thermally cracked to form vinyl fluoride. 

Cationic polymerization of coal-tar fractions has been commercially achieved through the use of strong protic acids, as well as various Lewis acids. Sulfuric acid was the first polymerization catalyst (11). More recent technology has focused on the Friedel-Crafts polymerization of coal fractions to yield resins with higher softening points and better color. Typical Lewis acid catalysts used in these processes are aluminum chloride, boron trifluoride, and various boron trifluoride complexes (12). Cmde feedstocks typically contain 25—75% reactive components and may be refined prior to polymerization (eg, acid or alkali treatment) to remove sulfur and other undesired components. Table 1 illustrates the typical components found in coal-tar fractions and their corresponding properties. 

Thermoplastic resins produced from pure monomers such as styrene, alkyl-substituted styrenes, and isobutylene are produced commercially. An advantage of these resins is the fact that they are typically lighter in color than Gardner 1 (water-white) without being hydrogenated. Among the earliest resins in this category were those made from styrene and sold as Piccolastic. Styrene and alkyl-substituted styrenes such as a-methylstyrene are very reactive toward Friedel-Crafts polymerization catalysts. 

Derivative Formation. Hydrogen peroxide is an important reagent in the manufacture of organic peroxides, including tert-huty hydroperoxide, benzoyl peroxide, peroxyacetic acid, esters such as tert-huty peroxyacetate, and ketone derivatives such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide. These are used as polymerization catalysts, cross-linking agents, and oxidants (see Peroxides and peroxide compounds). 

With the avadabihty of polymerization catalysts, extensive efforts were devoted to developing economical processes for manufacture of isoprene. Several synthetic routes have been commercialized. With natural mbber as an alternative, the ultimate value of the polymer was more or less dictated by that market. The first commercial use of isoprene in the United States started in 1940. It was used as a minor comonomer with isobutylene for the preparation of butyl mbber. Polyisoprene was commercialized extensively in the 1960s (6). In the 1990s isoprene is used almost exclusively as a monomer for polymerization (see ELASTOLffiRS,SYNTHETic-POLYisoPRENE). 

Another group of isoprene polymerization catalysts is based on alanes and TiCl. In place of alkyl aluminum, derivatives of AlH (alanes) are used and react with TiCl to produce an active catalyst for the polymerization of isoprene. These systems are unique because no organometaHic compound is involved in producing the active species from TiCl. The substituted alanes are generally complexed with donor molecules of the Lewis base type, and they are Hquids or soHds that are soluble in aromatic solvents. The performance of catalysts prepared from AlHCl20(C2H )2 with TiCl has been reported (101). 

Uses. Magnesium alkyls are used as polymerization catalysts for alpha-alkenes and dienes, such as the polymerization of ethylene (qv), and in combination with aluminum alkyls and the transition-metal haUdes (16—18). Magnesium alkyls have been used in conjunction with other compounds in the polymerization of alkene oxides, alkene sulfides, acrylonitrile (qv), and polar vinyl monomers (19—22). Magnesium alkyls can be used as a Hquid detergents (23). Also, magnesium alkyls have been used as fuel additives and for the suppression of soot in combustion of residual furnace oil (24). 

Polymerization in the Gas Phase. Many polymerization catalysts can be adapted for use in the gas phase. A gas-phase reactor contains a bed of small PE particles that is agitated either by a mechanical stirrer or by employing the fluidized-bed technique. These processes are economical because they do not requite solvent tecitculation streams. 

AH technologies employed for catalytic polymerization processes in general are widely used for the manufacture of HDPE. The two most often used technologies are slurry polymerization and gas-phase polymerization. Catalysts are usuaHy fine-tuned for a particular process. 

The Amoco reactor operates at 70—80°C and 2 MPa (300 psi) reactor pressure. The existence of several partially isolated compartments allows a semi-iadependent control of temperature as well as comonomer and hydrogen concentrations within each section, which ia turn offers a substantial control of the molecular weight and MWD of resias. Amoco technology also accommodates a large variety of polymerization catalysts, including Phillips and Ziegler catalysts. 

Eluidized-bed reactors are highly versatile and can accommodate many types of polymerization catalysts. Most of the catalysts used for LLDPE production are heterogeneous Ziegler catalysts, in both supported and unsupported forms. The gas-phase process can also accommodate supported metallocene catalysts that produce compositionaHy uniform LLDPE resins (49—51). 

Ziegler polymerization catalysts may be prepared from Cp—Zr complexes and tri alkyl aluminum. The molecular weight of the polymers can be controlled over a wide range by varying the temperature. The activity of these catalysts is considerably increased by the addition of small amounts of water (263,264) (see Olefin polya rs). 

Antimonic acid has been used as an ion-exchange material for a number of cations in acidic solution. Most interesting is the selective retention of Na" in 12 Af HQ, the retention being 99.9% (24). At lower acidities other cations are retained, even K". Many oxidation and polymerization catalysts are listed as containing Sb203. 

Benzoin, [119-53-9] 2-hydroxy-2-phenylacetophenone, CgH CH(OH)COCgH (mp, 133—137°C bp, 343—344°C at 101.3 kPa), is formed by the self-condensation of benzaldehyde in the presence of potassium cyanide. It is used on a small scale as a polymerization catalyst in polyester resin manufacture. 

Benzoyl chloride is an important benzoylating agent. In this use the benzoyl radical is introduced into alcohols, phenols, amines, and other compounds through the Friedel-Crafts reaction and the Schotten-Baumaim reaction. Other significant uses are in the production of benzoyl peroxide [94-56-0], benzophenone [119-61-9], and in derivatives employed in the fields of dyes, resins, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, and as polymerization catalysts. 

C2HBr202, is used as a polymerization catalyst. Tribromo-Z rZ-butyl alcohol [76-08S] C HyBr O, is a modifier in the polymerization of vinyl chloride. 

The cadmium chalcogenide semiconductors (qv) have found numerous appHcations ranging from rectifiers to photoconductive detectors in smoke alarms. Many Cd compounds, eg, sulfide, tungstate, selenide, teUuride, and oxide, are used as phosphors in luminescent screens and scintiUation counters. Glass colored with cadmium sulfoselenides is used as a color filter in spectroscopy and has recently attracted attention as a third-order, nonlinear optical switching material (see Nonlinear optical materials). DiaLkylcadmium compounds are polymerization catalysts for production of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), poly(vinyl acetate) (PVA), and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Mixed with TiCl, they catalyze the polymerization of ethylene and propylene. 

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