Hardening strain

Percent cold work-dependence on original and deformed cross-sectional areas 

Strain hardening is the phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperatiue at which deformation takes place is cold relative to the absolute melting temperatiue of the metal, cold working. Most metals strain harden at room temperature. 

It is sometimes convenient to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold work rather than as strain. Percent cold work (%CW) is defined as 

FigMre 7.19 For 1040 steel, brass, and copper, a) the increase in yield strength, b) the increase in tensile strength, and (c) the decrease in ductihty (%EL) with percent cold work. 

The strain-hardening phenomenon is explained on the basis of dislocation-dislocation strain field interactions similar to those discussed in Section 7.3. The dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation or cold work because of dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations, as noted previously. Consequently, the average distance of separation between dislocations decreases—the dislocations are positioned closer together. On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are repulsive. The net result is that the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other dislocations. As the dislocation density increases, this resistance to dislocation motion by other dislocations becomes more pronounced. Thus, the imposed stress necessary to deform a metal increases with increasing cold work. 

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Cp is tire number of elasticity active chains per volume unit. The comparison between experimental data and tire prediction by (C2.1.20) shows a reasonable agreement up to large defonnation (figure C2.1.16). For large values of X, strain hardening arises because of tire limited extensibility of tire chains or because of shear-induced crystallization. 

A hardness indentation causes both elastic and plastic deformations which activate certain strengthening mechanisms in metals. Dislocations created by the deformation result in strain hardening of metals. Thus the indentation hardness test, which is a measure of resistance to deformation, is affected by the rate of strain hardening. 

Steels iu the AISI 400 series contain a minimum of 11.5% chromium and usually not more than 2.5% of any other aHoyiag element these steels are either hardenable (martensitic) or nonhardenable, depending principally on chromium content. Whereas these steels resist oxidation up to temperatures as high as 1150°C, they are not particularly strong above 700°C. Steels iu the AISI 300 series contain a minimum of 16% chromium and 6% nickel the relative amounts of these elements are balanced to give an austenitic stmcture. These steels caimot be strengthened by heat treatment, but can be strain-hardened by cold work. 

Hardness, Impact Strength. Microhardness profiles on sections from explosion-bonded materials show the effect of strain hardening on the metals in the composite (see Hardness). Figure 8 Ulustrates the effect of cladding a strain-hardening austenitic stainless steel to a carbon steel. The austenitic stainless steel is hardened adjacent to the weld interface by explosion welding, whereas the carbon steel is not hardened to a great extent. 

Similarly, aluminum does not strain harden signiftcantiy. 

Both % El and % RA are frequendy used as a measure of workabifity. Workabifity information also is obtained from parameters such as strain hardening, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, area under the stress—strain diagram, and strain-rate sensitivity. 

When plastic deformation occurs, crystallographic planes sHp past each other. SHp is fackitated by the unique atomic stmcture of metals, which consists of an electron cloud surrounding positive nuclei. This stmcture permits shifting of atomic position without separation of atomic planes and resultant fracture. The stress requked to sHp an atomic plane past an adjacent plane is extremely high if the entire plane moves at the same time. Therefore, the plane moves locally, which gives rise to line defects called dislocations. These dislocations explain strain hardening and many other phenomena. 

An analogy to sHp dislocation is the movement of a caterpillar where a hump started at one end moves toward the other end until the entire caterpillar moves forward. Another analogy is the displacement of a mg by forming a hump at one end and moving it toward the other end. Strain hardening occurs because the dislocation density increases from about 10 dislocations/cm to as high as 10 /cm. This makes dislocation motion more difficult because dislocations interact with each other and become entangled. SHp tends to occur on more closely packed planes in close-packed directions. 

Film. By far the largest appHcation for LLDPE resins (over 60% in the United States) is film. Because LLDPE film has high tensile strength and puncture resistance, it is able to compete with HDPE film for many uses. The toughness and low temperature properties of LLDPE film also exceed those of conventional LDPE. Furthermore, because LLDPE resins exhibit relatively low strain hardening in the molten state and lower extensional viscosity, it can be produced at high rates with Httle risk of bubble breaks. 

AJ—Zn. Aluminum-rich binary ahoys (Fig. 18) are not age hardenable to any commercial significance, and 2inc [7440-66-6] Zn, additions do not significantly increase the abhity of aluminum to strain harden. Al—Zn ahoys find commercial use as sacrificial claddings on high strength Al—Cu—Mg—Zn aircraft ahoy sheet. The eutectoid composition near 78% Zn has found use as a superplastic sheet ahoy. 

Al—Mg—Mn. The basis for the alloys used as bodies, ends, and tabs of the cans used for beer and carbonated beverages is the Al—Mg—Mn alloy system. It is also used in other appHcations that exploit the excellent weldabiUty and corrosion resistance. These alloys have the unique abiUty to be highly strain hardened yet retain a high degree of ductOity. Some of the manganese combines with the iron to form AF(Fe,Mn) or constituent... 

Casey, J. and Naghdi, P.M., Strain Hardening Response of Elastic Plastic Materials, in Mechanics of Engineering Materials (edited by C.S. Desai and R.H. Gallagher), Wiley, New York, 1984, Chap. 4, pp. 61-89. 

The initial strain hardening rate (df/dy)o is given as a function of plastic strain rate for strain rates up to 10 s (which includes shock compression to 5.4 GPa) as [38]... 

Typically, a semicrystalline polymer has an amorphous component which is in the elastomeric (rubbery) temperature range - see Section 8.5.1 - and thus behaves elastically, and a crystalline component which deforms plastically when stressed. Typically, again, the crystalline component strain-hardens intensely this is how some polymer fibres (Section 8.4.5) acquire their extreme strength on drawing. 

When M M, disentanglement is nearly instantaneous but approaches tro when M 8Me, which is the strain hardened (A. 4) upper bound for chain pullout without bond mpture. For welding, the relaxation times Trq refer to the minor chains of length /(/) such that the retraction time is approximated by Tro /(/). When M > 8Me, the chains cannot disentangle completely at the Rouse time and... 

The maximum molecular weight M at which disentanglement can occur is determined when strain hardening occurs at Xc 4 such that... 

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