Somatic Musculature

Two additional parasite proteins with apparent HLH binding properties were identified, based on the idea that direct antagonism of host HLH transcription factors might be responsible for muscle cell subversion. One is a MyoDdike protein (Connolly el al., 1996) and another (110 kDa) is located in the vicinity of the hypodermis or somatic musculature of muscle larvae (Lindh el al., 1998). Secretion of these proteins into the infected cell has not been reported. 

Alternatively, other means of assessing the response of worms to praziquantel have been used. For example, one of the most prominent effects of the drug is an abrupt contraction of the somatic musculature of the adult worms. These contractions can be quantified and there is a good correlation between the magnitude... 

The human nervous system can be divided into two major functional areas the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The somatic division is concerned primarily with voluntary function—that is, control of the skeletal musculature. The ANS is responsible for controlling bodily functions that are largely involuntary, or automatic, in nature. For instance, the control of blood pressure (BP) and other aspects of cardiovascular function is under the influence of the ANS. Other involuntary, or vegetative, functions such as digestion, elimination, and thermoregulation are also controlled by this system. 

The cyclophyllidean oncosphere is well supplied with musculature and the general pattern of muscles appears to be similar in most species. So in both Hymenolepis citelli (which penetrates an invertebrate gut) and E. granulosus (which penetrates a vertebrate gut) there are 16 somatic muscle cells (146, 839). However, E. granulosus has 16 hook muscle cells but H. citelli has only 13. In E. granulosus, the hook muscles have been shown to insert at the collar and base of the hooks and at the basal lamina of the embryonic epithelium. Each pair of hooks has three muscle systems associated with it (a) a protractor system, for hook extensions (b) an abductor system, which draws the hooks together and (c) a retractor system which pulls the hooks into the body (839). 

A. tinman, a Homeobox Gene Required for the Formation of Visceral Musculature, Dorsal Somatic Muscles, and the Heart... 

Figure 2. The function of tinman in the formation of mesodermal tissues. The (eft column shows wild-type embryos and the right column tinman mutant embryos of the same stage and stained with the same markers. (A, B) Neither cardioblasts nor pericardial cells are formed in tin mutants (embryos stained as in Figure 1 ). (C, D) The midgut musculature (stained for flCal expression from an enhancer trap insertion is completely m ssing in tinman mutants. (E, F Dorsal muscles (stained for [iCa expression from a .cZ reporter insertion Yin and Frasch, 1998) are not properly specified in tinman mutants. (G, H) Earlv stage 12. The muscle founders of the S59 cluster I (as detected with an S59 antibody), which give rise to muscles 5 and 25, are not specified in tinman mutants. By contrast, the founder cells of S59 cluster II are formed normally and will develop into muscles 26, 2(r, and 29, (I, J) Stage 11. huttonlesi niRN.A expression in the DM cell precursors (arrow) is absent in tin mutants and DM cells are not formed. (The bilateral pairs of nuclei are Eve-stained neuronal precursors).. Abbreviations DM dorsal median cell precursors dsm dorsal somatic muscles mgv m midgut visceral mesoderm pc pericardial precursors.

Taylor, M., Beatty, K., Hunter, H., and Bayiies, M. (1995). Drosophila MEF2 is regulated by twist m6 is expressed in both the primordia and differentiated cells of the embryonic somatic, visceral and heart musculature. Mech. Dev. 50 29-41. 

The cervical region musculature is commonly involved in stress-related reactions. During times of stress, individuals tend to tense the neck and upper back muscles, elevate the shoulders, and as a result have pain and stiffness of the neck and upper back. Some patients tend to "carry the weight of the world on their shoulders, and the trapezius tenses. Often, tender points and trigger points develop in this muscle. Trigger points in the trapezius usually refer pain to the head. Teaching the patient techniques to cope with stress is important in the treatment of stress-related somatic dysfunctions. 

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