Smoking and chronic

Hackney, J. Smoking and Chronic Airways Obstruction. Final Report to the California State Air Resources Board on Contract No. NO1-HR3-2901. Sacramento California Air Resources Board. 1975. 175 pp. 

In conditions that lead to chronic hypoxemia, such as smoking and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, an increased concentration of BPG In the RBCs promotes O2 dissociation from hemoglobin in tissues to support cellular function. 

Ejerblad E, Pored CM, Lindblad P, Fryzek J, Dickman PW, ElinderCG, McLaughlin JK, Nyren O Association between smoking and chronic renal failure in a nationwide population-based case-control study. dAm Soc A/epbro/15 2178-2185,2004. 

Childhood exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and chronic respiratory symptoms in... 

Dai Y, Moriyama T, Higashi T et al (2004) Proteinase-activated receptor 2-mediated potentiation of transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily 1 activity reveals a mechanism for proteinase-induced inflammatory pain. J Neurosd 24 4293 299 Davenport PW, Bolser DC, Vickroy T et al (2007) The effect of codeine on the Urge-to-Cough response to inhaled capsaicin. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 20 338-346 David GL, Koh WP, Lee HP, Yu MC, London SJ (2005) Childhood exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and chronic respiratory symptoms in non-smoking adults The Singapore Chinese health study. Thorax 60 1052-1058... 

Asthma, smoking and chronic cough in rural and urban adult communities in The Gambia. Chn Exp Allergy 31 1679-1685... 

COPD includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Chronic bronchitis is defined clinically as a chronic productive cough for at least 3 months in each of two consecutive years in a patient in whom other causes have been excluded.1 Emphysema is defined pathologically as the presence of permanent enlargement of the airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destruction of their walls without obvious fibrosis.1 The major risk factor for both conditions is cigarette smoking, and many patients share characteristics of each condition. Therefore, new consensus guidelines have moved away from using these subsets and instead focus on chronic airflow limitation. 

A cohort mortality study was conducted to compare the mortality rates due to chronic renal disease in 4,519 battery plant workers and 2,300 lead production or smelter workers from 1947 to 1980 (Cooper 1988 Cooper et al. 1985). The mortality data for these workers were compared with national mortality rates for white males. Environmental lead levels and PbB levels were available for only about 30% of all workers for varying time periods from 1947 to 1972. Statistically significant increases in mortality from "other hypertensive disease" and "chronic nephritis" were seen in both lead cohorts. Limitations of this study include the fact that various confounding factors, such as smoking, were not accounted for, and the workers were probably exposed to other toxic chemicals. 

The disturbance of balance between superoxide and nitric oxide occurs in a variety of common disease states. For example, altered endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation due to a decrease in NO formation has been shown in animal models of hypertension, diabetes, cigarette smoking, and heart failure [21]. Miller et al. [22] suggested that a chronic animal model atherosclerosis closely resembles the severity of atherosclerosis in patients. On the whole, the results obtained in humans, for example, in hypertensive patients [23] correspond well to animal experiments. It is important that endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation in patients may be improved by ascorbic acid probably through the reaction with superoxide. 

All patients with chronic HCV infection should be vaccinated for hepatitis A and B. Patients should be advised to maintain good overall health, stop smoking, and avoid alcohol and illicit drugs. 

Maiese K, Holloway HH, Larson DM, SoncrantTT. (1994). Effect of acute and chronic arecoline treatment on cerebral metabolism and blood flow in the conscious rat. Brain Res. 641(1) 65-75. Malloy MH, Kleinman JC, Land GH, Schramm WF. (1988). The association of maternal smoking with age and cause of infant death. Am J Epidemiol. 128(1) 46-55. 

Aii SF, Newport GD, Scaiiet AC, Pauie MG, Baiiey JR, Siikker W Jr. (1991). Chronic marijuana smoke exposure in the rhesus monkey IV. Neurochemicai effects and comparison to acute and chronic exposure to deita-9-tetrahydrocannabinoi (THC) in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 40(3) 677-82. Bachman JA, Benowitz NL, Herning RI, Jones RT. (1979). Dissociation of autonomic and cognitive effects of THC in man. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 61(2) 171-75. 

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