Science Correspondent

In the Discussion period, it was emphasised that C02 played an important role in the ICI process for methanol synthesis. Tom Wilkie, the Science Correspondent of The Independent newspaper, was present and the following day, 22 August 1990, the following headline appeared in the newspaper ... 

A smudge of spit on a beer glass leaves a person as vulnerable as if they had left their medical dossier, business card and personal journal lying on the bar top. Science correspondent - The Guardian (UK), February 2002... 

D. Derbyshire. Daily Telegraph, 1 September 2002, science correspondence notes. 

Lewis L. Strauss to V fillard F. Libby, 4 June 1956, Libby to Strauss, 6 June 1956 (National Academy of Sciences Correspondence), libby Office Files, AEC/ DOE. 

The Supplement B (reference) contains a description of the process to render an automatic construction of mathematical models with the application of electronic computer. The research work of the Institute of the applied mathematics of The Academy of Sciences ( Ukraine) was assumed as a basis for the Supplement. The prepared mathematical model provides the possibility to spare strength and to save money, usually spent for the development of the mathematical models of each separate enterprise. The model provides the possibility to execute the works standard forms and records for the non-destructive inspection in complete correspondence with the requirements of the Standard. 

Figure A2.5.27. The effective coexistence curve exponent P jj = d In v/d In i for a simple mixture N= 1) as a fimction of the temperature parameter i = t / (1 - t) calculated from crossover theory and compared with the corresponding curve from mean-field theory (i.e. from figure A2.5.15). Reproduced from [30], Povodyrev A A, Anisimov M A and Sengers J V 1999 Crossover Flory model for phase separation in polymer solutions Physica A 264 358, figure 3, by pennission of Elsevier Science.

How are fiindamental aspects of surface reactions studied The surface science approach uses a simplified system to model the more complicated real-world systems. At the heart of this simplified system is the use of well defined surfaces, typically in the fonn of oriented single crystals. A thorough description of these surfaces should include composition, electronic structure and geometric structure measurements, as well as an evaluation of reactivity towards different adsorbates. Furthemiore, the system should be constructed such that it can be made increasingly more complex to more closely mimic macroscopic systems. However, relating surface science results to the corresponding real-world problems often proves to be a stumbling block because of the sheer complexity of these real-world systems. 

Figure Bl.21.1 shows a number of other clean umeconstnicted low-Miller-index surfaces. Most surfaces studied in surface science have low Miller indices, like (111), (110) and (100). These planes correspond to relatively close-packed surfaces that are atomically rather smooth. With fee materials, the (111) surface is the densest and smoothest, followed by the (100) surface the (110) surface is somewhat more open , in the sense that an additional atom with the same or smaller diameter can bond directly to an atom in the second substrate layer. For the hexagonal close-packed (licp) materials, the (0001) surface is very similar to the fee (111) surface the difference only occurs deeper into the surface, namely in the fashion of stacking of the hexagonal close-packed monolayers onto each other (ABABAB.. . versus ABCABC.. ., in the convenient layerstacking notation). The hep (1010) surface resembles the fee (110) surface to some extent, in that it also...

Schemes for classifying surfactants are based upon physical properties or upon functionality. Charge is tire most prevalent physical property used in classifying surfactants. Surfactants are charged or uncharged, ionic or nonionic. Charged surfactants are furtlier classified as to whetlier tire amphipatliic portion is anionic, cationic or zwitterionic. Anotlier physical classification scheme is based upon overall size and molecular weight. Copolymeric nonionic surfactants may reach sizes corresponding to 10 000-20 000 Daltons. Physical state is anotlier important physical property, as surfactants may be obtained as crystalline solids, amoriDhous pastes or liquids under standard conditions. The number of tailgroups in a surfactant has recently become an important parameter. Many surfactants have eitlier one or two hydrocarbon tailgroups, and recent advances in surfactant science include even more complex assemblies [7, 8 and 9].

John von Neuman, one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century, believed that the sciences, in essence, do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret they mainly make models. By a model he meant a mathematical construct that, with the addition of certain verbal interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justification of such a mathematical construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work. Stephen Hawking also believes that physical theories are just mathematical models we construct and that it is meaningless to ask whether they correspond to reality, just as it is to ask whether they predict observations. 

Energy is one of the most useful concepts in science. The analysis of energetics can predict what molecular processes are likely to occur, or able to occur. All computational chemistry techniques define energy such that the system with the lowest energy is the most stable. Thus, finding the shape of a molecule corresponds to finding the shape with the lowest energy. 

The other mechanism appears in scrubbers. When water vapor diffuses from a gas stream to a cold surface and condenses, there is a net hydrodynamic flow of the noncondensable gas directed toward the surface. This flow, termed the Stefan flow, carries aerosol particles to the condensing surface (Goldsmith and May, in Davies, Aero.sol Science, Academic, New York, 1966) and can substantially improve the performance of a scrubber. However, there is a corresponding Stefan flow directed away from a surface at which water is evaporating, and this will tend to repel aerosol particles from the surface. 

FIG. 20-74 Effect of binder viscosity and liquid content on final granule porosity for the drum granulation of 15 im glass baUotini. Decreasing granule porosity corresponds to increasing extent of granule consolidation. [Iveson et al., Powder Tech., 88, 15 (1996). ] With land permission from Elsevier Science SA, Lausanne, Switzerland. 

We have seen that physical chemistry evolved from a deep dissatisfaction in the minds of a few pioneers with the current state of chemistry as a whole one could say that its emergence was research-driven and spread across the world by hordes of new Ph.Ds. Chemical engineering was driven by industrial needs and the corresponding changes that were required in undergraduate education. Polymer science started from a wish to understand certain natural products and moved by... 

FIG. 9 (a-c) Experimental LEED intensities for (1 x 3) (solid line) and (1x2) (long-short dashed) structures and corresponding TPD rates (dotted lines) as a function of desorption temperature for approximate initial coverages 1 /3, 1 /2, 2/3 ML. Arbitrary units, (d-f) Theoretical LEED intensities, calculated with Eq. (40), and theoretical TPD rates for these initial coverages. Heating rate 1 K/s. (Reprinted from Ref. 39 with permission from Elsevier Science.)... 

A fluonnated dimethyl ether is assigned the same number as the corresponding Cj alkane prefixed with an "E , a nomenclature recently adopted by the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) in the United States... 

Mathematical models are the link between what is observed experimentally and what is thought to occur at the molecular level. In physical sciences, such as chemistry, there is a direct correspondence between the experimental observation and the molecular world (i.e., a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum directly reflects the interaction of hydrogen atoms on a molecule). In pharmacology the observations are much more indirect, leaving a much wider gap between the physical chemistry involved in drug-receptor interaction and what the cell does in response to those interactions (through the cellular veil ). Hence, models become uniquely important. 

Fig. 35. The surroundings of Cu2+ and Nb(0,F)6 octahedrons in the crystal structure of CuNbO F. Ends of the bold and thin lines correspond to metals positioned at Z 0.75 and Z-0.25. Reproduced from [222], M. Lmdberg, O. Savborg, Chem. Scripta 13 (1978-79) 197, Copyright 1979, with permission of The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Fig. 76. IR spectra of the systems Na2TaF7 - NaF (a), K2TaF7 - KF (b), Rb2TaF7 - RbF (c). Curves 1, 2, 3 etc. correspond to 0, 0.1, 0.3 etc. molar fraction of alkali fluoride. The CsTaFf, - CsF system (d) is represented by spectra of CsTaF6 (curve 1), Cs2TaF7 (curve 2) and Cs2TaF8 (curve 3). Reproduced from [358], A. I. Agulyansky, Zh. Neorg. Khim. 25 (1980) 2998, Copyright 1980, with permission of Nauka (Russian Academy of Sciences) publishing.

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