Satellite temperature maps

Figure 8, Sea surface temperature maps (°C), inf erred from satellite IR images. Contour interval is one radiometric unit (-0.7 °C). Phytoplankton pigments (hatched area) are shown in June 11 figure with a contour interval of 0.7 mg/m. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 6. Coptjright 1983,...

On the last three decades, several space experiments with parts at very low temperatures have been flown. Among these, we mention IRAS (Infrared Astronomical Satellite) launched in 1983 (see Fig. 14.1), COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) launched in 1989, ISO (Infrared Space Observatory) launched in 1995 and Astro-E (X-ray Observatory), launched in 2000 with instrumentation at 65 mK [35], Some cryogenic space missions are in the preparation or in final phase in Europe, USA and Japan. For example, ESA is going to fly Planck (for the mapping of the cosmic background radiation) and Herschel (called before FIRST Far Infrared and Submillimetre Telescope ) [36], These missions will carry experiments at 0.1 and 0.3 K respectively. 

The purpose of the series was to accumulate scientific data, such as inside, outside and skin temperatures density, distribution and momentum of micro-meteorites, cosmic-ray intensity energy and intensity of corpuscular radiations, X-radiation, die extent of the earth s radiation belt, map the earth s magnetic field, etc Note 1 Perigee is the point in the orbit of a satellite of the earth that is nearest to the earth... 

The monthly mean ozone from the Dobson time series (1957-1986) of Vigna di Valle (50 km apart from Rome) and from TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) satellite data (1979-1991) version 6 are assumed as climatological frames of reference for Rome and Ispra, respectively. Aerosol optical depths at 550 nm are estimated by means of sunphotometry. Data from the two meteorological stations of Rome and Milan airports are used to describe the atmospheric conditions. Standard vertical profiles of pressure, temperature, relative humidity and ozone density are selected. 

Figure 5.71. Geographical distribution of Januctry average space heating requirements in the year 2050, based on satellite measurements of temperature (on a gross scale of an approximately 50-km grid) in combination with the scenario s assumed building standards. The variations thus reflect both dimate differences across Denmark and differences in heated space per unit cell. The map uses the Mollweide area-preserving projection, in contrast to the straight longitude-latitude co-ordinate system of, e.g.. Fig. 5.70 (Sorensen ei al., 2001).

The LST and total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) are positively correlated. The methodology followed is based on the fact that most of the satellites carry a thermal infra-red band which can be used for LST estimation. The spatio-temporal variation in the thermodynamic properties of surface material has been mapped in order to identify hydrocarbon polluted surfaces using Landsat TM data. Emissivity is a strong indicator of compositional variation in silicate minerals which make up the bulk of the earth s surface material. Emissivity affects the apparent temperature due to changes in the thermal properties of materials (conductivity, density, capacity, and inertia). There are several algorithms proposed to estimate LST from remotely sensed data. The most common of these are mono-window and split window methods [22-25], the latter was used initially to estimate sea surface temperature. 

The advent of easy access to the satellite-based global positioning system (GPS) and availability of off-the-shelf portable probes and rapid analyzers for a number of water quality determinants have enabled the development of systems that can be carried on small survey vessels to map water quality conditions. Rapid data acquisition is now practical using probes and sondes for measuring temperature, conductivity, turbidity, pH, and dissolved oxygen fluorometric technologies for chlorophyll biomass and phytoplankton composition flow injection and loop flow analysis for some nutrient species and acoustic Doppler-based devices for current profiling. 

Tilden, C. E. 1968-69, Techniques for the Utilization of Satellite Observations in Operational Mapping of Sea Surface Temperature, Meteorology International, Inc., Monterey, Calif. (Quarterly Reports 1, 2, and 3),... 

---