Satellite Missions

As it was pointed out already, water can be detected by IR measurements and most of these observations have to be made from satellites because of the absorption of the Earth s atmosphere. 

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The IRAS satellite mission, launched in 1983, provided a more complete survey of disk and active galaxies containing dust than had been possible from optical observations. Follow-up measurements of redshifts and other properties led to significant results for cosmology and the discovery of many luminous star-forming and active galaxies enshrouded by dust. A typical spiral galaxy like our own... 

Balloon and WMAP satellite missions provide details of angular fluctuation spectrum of MWB, giving precise estimates of cosmological parameters. 

Parkinson C.L. (2003). Aqua An Earth-observing satellite mission to examine water and other climate variables. IEEE Trans, on Geosci. and Remote Sensing, 41(2), 173-183. 

Within the last 25 years of X-ray spectroscopy on fusion devices, the theory of He-like ions has been developed to an impressive precision. The spectra can be modeled with deviations not more than 10% on all lines. For the modeling, only parameters with physical meaning and no additional approximation factors are required. Even the small effects due to recombination of H-like atoms, which contribute only a few percent to the line intensity, can be used to explain consistently the recombination processes and hence the charge state distribution in a hot plasma. The measurements on fusion devices such as tokamaks or stellarators allow the comparison to the standard diagnostics for the same parameters. As these diagnostics are based on different physical processes, they provide sensitive tests for the atomic physics used for the synthetic spectra. They also allow distinguishing between different theoretical approaches to predict the spectra of other elements within the iso-electronic series. The modeling of the X-ray spectra of astronomical objects or solar flares, which are now frequently explored by X-ray satellite missions, is now more reliable. In these experiments, the statistical quality of the spectra is limited due to the finite observation time or the lifetime of... 

INTEGRAL [1] is a satellite mission for 7-ray astronomy recently selected by ESA within the Horizon 2000 program. The payload consists of two main instruments, one optimised for spectroscopy (Spectrometer) and the other for fine imaging (Imager). Both detectors are coupled with a coded mask. The INTEGRAL payload is completed by two monitors, one operating in the X-ray band (XRM) and the other in the optical window (OTC). 

Following the success of the COBE mission several more refined (ground based and balloon) measurements of the CMBR fluctuations were performed between 1998 and 2001. An angular resolution of about 1° has been achieved, which was further refined to the arc-minute level by the satellite mission Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). The combined efforts of these investigations allowed the determination of the multipole projection of CMBR on the sky up to angular moments I = 2,000. The fluctuation information extracted... 

First of all, to understand satellite missions, we need to consider the large range of satellite uses. Indeed, there is a direct relationship between satellite application and the orbit where it is located. The Earth observation satellite missions, for example, take high-resolution photographs of landscape, vegetation, military camps, etc. To increase resolution, a satellite should be placed close to the Earth in LEO. 

Proposing the two main Li-ion cell chemistries, Saft can do its choice depending on satellite mission and size. All these cell designs use graphite mixtures at the negative electrode with a standard electrolyte and a 3-layer separator. 

InSAR and A-lnSAR Theory, Table 1 Past and present side-looking SAR satellite missions (as of 1 November 2014)... 

FIGURE 8 Representation of the typical spatial and temporal scales of non-tidal temporal gravity variations on the Earth. The shaded area is the temporal and spatial scales that the GRACE satellite mission is expected to resolve. 

When any region of the electromagnetic spectrum is opened to new investigation, or detectors suddenly achieve a marked improvement in sensitivity, an exciting era of discovery inevitably ensues. This is particularly true in the gamma-ray regime, where the launch of each new satellite mission has resulted in the discovery of previously... 

House, F. B., Gruber, A., Hunt, G. E., Mecherikunnel, A. T. (1986). History of satellite missions and measurements of the Earth radiation budget (1957-1984). Journal of Geophysical Research, 24, 357-77. 

Both reactions occur in star forming regions. These reaction take place in star and planet forming gas irradiated by far UV or X-rays. The forth form of water has been detected outside the solar system by the satellite mission Herschel Space Observatory with the HIFI instrument (a high resolution spectrometer for the far IR).6 For example Bonev et al., 2002 [37] measured H2O+ in the plasma tails of comets at a wavelength of 615.886 nm. Further earlier observations of H2O+ in other comets (e.g. Halley s comet) are given in that paper. 

Venus is sometimes referred to as sister Earth because it is similar in size. Its surface is hidden by dense clouds (Fig. 3.3). Observations made from ground by radar and from satellite missions and even successful landings revealed an extremely dry surface resembling the surface of Mercury or the Moon, so the conditions for life are not very promising. The surface pressure of the atmosphere is 90 times that of Earth s, and, because of the dense atmosphere that consists mainly of the greenhouse gas CO2, the surface temperature is about 460°C. It is interesting to note, that this high surface temperature can be found on any place on the surface of Venus, there are no big differences between e.g. the equator and the poles. Therefore, contrary to Mercury, it is unlikely to find ice or water near the poles of Venus. Venus rotates in 243 Earth days in the direction opposite to its orbital motion and one revolution about the Sun lasts 224.7 days. The surface of Venus shows craters and ancient volcanoes (Fig. 3.4). 

Many attempts were made to investigate the red planet with satellite missions, however, until 2006 only 18 of 37 launch attempts to reach Mars have been successful. 

The first images of the surface of Mars from a satellite mission were obtained in 1965 by Mariner 4 (US). In 1971 for the first time a satellite could be brought into orbit around a planet (with exception of Earth of course). The results were disappointing because the surface of Mars appears more like that of the Moon and there are no signs of the canali claimed to have been observed. 

In Europe, there is a study (HADES) for a satellite mission to Europa (orbiter, lander, cryobot) (Bottcher et at., 2009 [39]). 

Observations made with NASA s Moon Mineralogy Mapper (see Fig. 4.26) aboard an Indian satellite mission showed evidence for water on the Moon which... 

Nucleus composed of rock, dust, ices, frozen gases often described as dirty snowballs, however the ices are covered by dark dust and rocks. The nuclei are irregularly shaped and the diameters range from several 100 m to some dozens of km. Up to now only the nuclei of the comets Halley (Fig. 5.3), Borrelly, Wild and Tempel 1 have been investigated by satellite missions and photographed directly. 

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