Red tide toxins

The biosynthesis of two major classes of red tide toxins, saxitoxin analogs and brevetoxins, have been studied. It was shown that saxitoxin is biosynthesized from arginine, acetate, and methionine methyl group. Brevetoxins were shown to be unique polyketides, which are probably biosynthesized from dicarboxylic acids. Some details of the biosynthetic mechanism have been elucidated. 

Mehta M, Kemppainen BW, Stafford RG (1991) In vitro penetration of tritium-labelled water (THO) and [3H]PbTx-3 (a red tide toxin) through monkey buccal mucosa and skin. Toxicol Lett 55 185-194... 

Risk, M., et al., Actions of Ptychodiscus brevis red tide toxin on metabolic and transmitter-releasing properties of synaptosomes, J. Neurochem., 39, 5, 1485, 1982. 

What kind of organism causes red tide What are some of the symptoms of poisoning by red tide toxins ... 

Kemppainen, B.W., Mehta, M., and Clarke, C.R. 1989. Effect of vehicle on in vitro percutaneous penetration of [3H] PbTx-3 (a red tide toxin) in human and guinea-pig skin. Toxicon 27, 54-55. 

Singer, L.J., Lee, T, Rosen, K.A., Baden, D.G., and Abraham, W.M. 1998. Inhaled Florida red tide toxins induced bron-choconstriction (BC) and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in sheep. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157, A158. 

Watanabe, T, Locket, R.F., and Krzanowski, J.J. 1988. Airway smooth muscle contraction induced by Ptychodiscus brevis (red tide) toxin as related to a trigger mechanism of bronchial asthma. Immunol Allergy Pract 10, 185-192. 

Pierce, R., Henry, M.S., Proffitt, L.S., and Hasbrouck, PA. 1990. Red tide toxin (brevetoxin) enrichment in marine aerosol. In Toxic Marine Phytoplankton, ed. Graneli, E., Sundstrom, B., Elder, L., and Anderson, D.M. New York Elsevier, 397-402. 

Kimm-Brinson, K.L., and Ramsdell, J.S. 2001. The red tide toxin, brevetoxin, induces embryo toxicity and developmental abnormalities. Environ Health Perspect 109,377-381. 

Recurrent Fever Red Gas Red No. 1 Red Star Red Tide Toxins Relapsing Fever Rescue Squad Resistox Resitox Resitox 794 Reston Virus... 

Fleming LE, Kirkpatrick B, Backer LC, Bean JA, Wanner A, Dalpra D, Tamer R, et al. Initial evaluation of the effects of aerosolized Florida red tide toxins (brevetoxins) in persons with asthma. Environ Health Perspect 113 650-657, 2005. 

Sheridan, R. E. and Adler, M., The actions of a red tide toxin from Ptychodiscus brevis on single sodium channels in mammalian neuroblastoma cells, FEBS Lett 247, 448, 1989. 

Richards, I. S., Kulkami, A. P., Brooks, S. M. et al., Florida red-tide toxins (brevetoxins) produce depolarization of airway smooth muscle, Toxicon 28, 1105, 1990. 

Shimoda, T., Krzanowski, J., Jr, Nelson, R. et al., In vitro red tide toxin effects on human bronchial smooth muscle, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 81, 1187, 1988. 

Shimizu, Y. Red Tide Toxins Assay and Isolation of the Toxic Components in Handling of Natural Products — Extraction and Isolation of Bioactive Compounds, pp. 151. Kodansha Scientific (1977). 

Shimizu, Y. Red Tide Toxins — Paralytic Shellfish Poisons Produced by Gonyaulax Organisms. Kagaku to Seibutsu 18, 792 (1980). 

Shimizu, Y. Red Tide Toxins Symposium Lecture No. 337. The American Chemical Society — Chemical Society of Japan Chemistry Congress, Honolulu, Hawaii (1979). 

Ciguatoxin is 100 times more poisonous than brevetoxin, the red tide toxin (Section 9-5), and is responsible for more human poisoning from seafood consumption than any other substance More than 20,000 people become sick in this way each year, developing gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and neurological abnormalities that can lead to paralysis, coma, and death. 

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