Radioactive isotopes artificially produced

All the other eight Isotopes are radioactive and artificially produced with half-lives ranging from Be-8 = 0.067 seconds to Be-14 = 1.6x 10 years. 

ISOTOPES There are 38 isotopes of zinc, ranging in atomic weights from Zn-54 to Zn-83. Just four of these are stable, and those four, plus one naturally radioactive isotope (Zn-70) that has a very long half-life (5x10+ years), make up the element s existence on Earth. Their proportional contributions to the natural existence of zinc on Earth are as such Zn-64 = 48.63%, Zn-66 = 27.90%, Zn-67 = 4.10%, Zn- 68 = 18.75%, and Zn-70 = 0.62%. All the other isotopes are radioactive and artificially produced. 

ISOTOPES There are 42 isotopes of palladium, ranging from Pd-91 to Pd-124. All but six are radioactive and artificially produced in nuclear reactors with half-lives ranging from 159 nanoseconds to 6.5x10+ years. The six stable isotopes of palladium and their proportional contribution to their existence in the Earth s crust are as follows Pd-102 = 1.02%, Pd-104 = 11.14%, Pd-105 = 22.23%, Pd-106 = 27.33%, Pd-108 = 26.46%, and Pd-110= 11.72%. 

ISOTOPES There are 52 isotopes of cadmium. Forty-four are radioactive and artificially produced, ranging from Cd-96 to Cd-131. Of these 52 isotopes, there are five stable isotopes plus three naturally occurring radioactive isotopes with extremely long half-lives that are considered as contributing to the element s natural occurrence in the Earth s crust. The three naturally radioactive isotopes (Cd-106, Cd-113, and Cd-116) are the longest known beta emitters. They are two million years older than when the solar system was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The five stable isotopes and their proportional contributions to the elemenfs existence on Earth are as follows Cd-108 = 0.89%, Cd-110 = 12.49%, Cd-111= 12.80%, Cd-112 = 24.13%, and Cd-114 = 28.73%. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 54 isotopes of gold, only one of which is stable Au-197, which accounts for the element s total natural existence on Earth. The remaining 53 isotopes are radioactive, are artificially produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators, and have half-lives ranging from a few microseconds to a few seconds to a few hours to a few days. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 45 Isotopes of europium. Two are considered stable and account for 100% of the europium found on Earth Eu-151 (47.81%) and Eu-153 (52.19%). All the other 53 Isotopes are radioactive and artificially produced, primarily through electron capture. 

Thirty-six radioactive isotopes of europium have also been made artificially. A radioactive isotope is one that breaks apart and gives off some form of radiation. Radioactive isotopes are produced when very small particles are fired at atoms. These particles stick in the atoms and make them radioactive. None of the radioactive isotopes of europium has any commercial use. 

Seventy artificial radioactive isotopes of indium also exist. Radioactive isotopes are produced when very small particles are fired at atoms. These particles stick in the atoms and make them radioactive. Two of these isotopes are used in medicine. Indium-113 is used to examine the liver, spleen, brain, pulmonary ( breathing ) system, and heart and blood system. Indium-111 is used to search for tumors, internal bleeding, abscesses, and infections and to study the gastric (stomach) and blood systems. In both cases, the radioactive isotope is injected into the bloodstream. Inside the body, the isotope gives off radiation. That radiation can be detected by means of a camera or other device. The radiation pattern observed provides information about the organ or system being studied. 

Few of the naturally occurring elements have significant amounts of radioactive isotopes, but there are many artificially produced radioactive species. Mass spectrometry can measure both radioactive and nonradioactive isotope ratios, but there are health and safety issues for the radioactive ones. However, modem isotope instmments are becoming so sensitive that only very small amounts of sample are needed. Where radioactive isotopes are a serious issue, the radioactive hazards can be minimized by using special inlet systems and ion pumps in place of rotary pumps for maintaining a vacuum. For example, mass spectrometry is now used in the analysis of Pu/ Pu ratios. 

It is not necessary that there be two isotopes in both the sample and the spike. One isotope in the sample needs to be measured, but the spike can have one isotope of the same element that has been produced artificially. The latter is often a long-lived radioisotope. For example, and are radioactive and all occur naturally. The radioactive isotope does not occur naturally but is made artificially by irradiation of Th with neutrons. Since it is commercially available, this last isotope is often used as a spike for isotope-dilution analysis of natural uranium materials by comparison with the most abundant isotope ( U). 

Matsson and coworkers have measured the carbon-1 l/carbon-14 kinetic isotope effects for several Menshutkin reactions (equation 35) in an attempt to model the S/v2 transition state for this important class of organic reaction. These isotope effects are unusual because they are based on the artificially-made radioactive carbon-11 isotope. The radioactive carbon-11 isotope is produced in a cyclotron or linear accelerator by bombarding nitrogen-14 atoms with between 18- and 30-MeV protons (equation 36). 

ISOTOPES Cs-133 is the only stable isotope of cesium, and it makes up all of the naturally occurring cesium found in the Earth s crust. In addition to Cs-133 there are about 36 radioactive isotopes of Cs, most of which are artificially formed in nuclear reactors. All are produced in small numbers of atoms with relatively short half-lives. The range of Cs isotopes is from Cs-113 (amu = 112.94451) to Cs-148 (amu = 147.94900). Most of these radioisotopes produce beta radiation as they rapidly decay, with the exception of Cs-135, which has a half-life of 3x10 yr, which makes it a useful research tool. Cs-137, with a half-life of 33 years, produces both beta and gamma radiation. 

ISOTOPES There are 30 isotopes of manganese, ranging from Mn-44 to Mn-69, with only one being stable Mn-55 makes up 100% of the element in the Earth s crust. All the other isotopes are artificially radioactive with half-lives ranging from 70 nanoseconds to 3.7x10 years. Artificial radioisotopes are produced in nuclear reactors, and because most radioactive isotopes are not natural, they do not contribute to the elemenfs natural existence on Earth. 

ISOTOPES There are 30 isotopes of iron ranging from Fe-45 to Fe-72. The following are the four stable isotopes with the percentage of their contribution to the elemenfs natural existence on Earth Fe-54 = 5.845%, Fe-56 = 91.72%, Fe-57 = 2.2%, and Fe-58 = 0.28%. It might be noted that Fe-54 is radioactive but is considered stable because it has such a long half-life (3.1 xlO years). The other isotopes are radioactive and are produced artificially. Their half-lives range from 150 nanoseconds to 1x10 years. 

ISOTOPES There are 32 known isotopes of copper, ranging from Cu-52 to Cu-80. Only two of these 32 isotopes of copper are stable, and together they make up the amount of natural copper found In the Earth s crust In the following proportions Cu-63 = 69.17% and Cu-65 = 30.83%. All the other Isotopes of copper are radioactive and are artificially produced with half-lives ranging from a few nanoseconds to about 61 hours. 

ISOTOPES There are 50 Isotopes of Yttrium. Only one Is stable (Y-89), and It constitutes 100% of the element s natural existence on Earth. The other Isotopes range from Y-77 to Y-108 and are all produced artificially In nuclear reactions. The radioactive Isotopes have half-lives ranging from 105 nanoseconds to 106.65 days. 

ISOTOPES Zirconium has 37 isotopes, ranging from Zr-79 to Zr-110. Four of them are stable, and one is a naturally radioactive isotope, with a very long half-life. All five contribute to the element s natural existence on Earth. The stable isotopes are the following Zr-90 = 1.45%, Zr-91 = 11.22%, Zr-92 = 17.15%, and Zr-94 = 17.38%. The one natural radioactive isotope is considered stable Zr-96, with a half-life of 2.2 x 10+ years, contributes 2.80% to zirconium s total existence on Earth. All of the other isotopes are artificially radioactive and are produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. They have half-lives ranging from 150 nanoseconds to 1.53 x 10+ years. 

Zirconium-95 is the most important of the artificial radioactive isotopes of zirconium. It is placed in pipelines to trace the flow of oil and other fluids as they flow through the pipes. It is also used as a catalyst in petroleum-cracking plants that produce petroleum products from crude oil. 

ISOTOPES There are 47 isotopes. None are stable and all are radioactive. Most are produced artificially in cyclotrons (particle accelerators) and nuclear reactors. The atomic mass of its isotopes ranges from Tc-85 to Tc-118. Most of technetium s radioactive isotopes have very short half-lives. The two natural radioisotopes with the longest half-lives—Tc-98 = 4.2x10+ years and Tc-99 = 2.111 xl0+ years—are used to establish technetium s atomic weight. 

The major characteristic of technetium is that it is the only element within the 29 transition metal-to-nonmetal elements that is artificially produced as a uranium-fission product in nuclear power plants. It is also the tightest (in atomic weight) of all elements with no stable isotopes. Since all of technetiums isotopes emit harmful radiation, they are stored for some time before being processed by solvent extraction and ion-exchange techniques. The two long-lived radioactive isotopes, Tc-98 and Tc-99, are relatively safe to handle in a well-equipped laboratory. 

ISOTOPES There are 55 Isotopes of Iridium, two of which are stable and account for the element s total existence on Earth. Those two are lr-191, which makes up 37.3% of the amount In the Earth s crust, and lr-193, which constitutes 62.7% of Iridium s existence on Earth. All the other 53 Isotopes of Iridium are radioactive with half-lives ranging from a few microseconds to a few hours or days and up to a few hundred years. These unstable Isotopes are all artificially produced. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 43 isotopes for platinum. Five of these are stable, and another has such a long half-life that it is considered practically stable (Pt-190 with a half-life of 6.5x10+" years). Pt-190 contributes just 0.014% to the proportion of platinum found on Earth. The stable isotopes and their contributions to platinum s existence on Earth are as follows Pt-192 = 0.782%, Pt-194 = 32.967%, Pt-195 = 33.832%, Pt-196 = 25.242%, and Pt-198 = 7.163%. All the other isotopes are radioactive and are produced artificially. They have half-lives ranging from a few microseconds to minutes to hours, and one has a half-life of 50 years (Pt-193). 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 38 isotopes of Germanium, five of which are stable. The stable isotopes of germanium and their natural abundance are as follows Ge-70 = 20.37%, Ge-72 = 27.31%, Ge-73 = 7.76%, Ge-74 = 36.73%, and Ge-76 = 7.83%. Ge-76 is considered stable because it has such a long half-life (O.SxlO+ s years)All the other 33 isotopes are radioactive and are produced artificially. 

ISOTOPES There are 49 isotopes of tin, 10 of which are stable and range from Sn-112 to Sn-124. Taken together, all 10 stable isotopes make up the natural abundance of tin found on Earth. The remaining 39 isotopes are radioactive and are produced artificially in nuclear reactors. Their half-lives range from 190 milliseconds to 1x10+ years. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 25 isotopes of chlorine. Of these, only two are stable and contribute to the natural abundance on Earth as follows Cl-35 = 75.77% and Cl-37 = 24.23%. All the other 23 isotopes are produced artificially, are radioactive, and have half-lives ranging from 20 nanoseconds to 3.01 x 10+ years. 

ISOTOPES There are 45 isotopes of praseodymium. All are artificially produced and radioactive with half-lives ranging from several hundred nanoseconds to 23.6 days. Only one is stable (Pa-141), and it makes up 100% of the praseodymium found in the Earth s crust. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 39 isotopes of dysprosium, seven of which are stable. The atomic mass of the stable isotopes ranges from 156 to 164 amu (atomic mass units or atomic weight). The unstable isotopes of dysprosium have half-lives ranging from 150 milliseconds to 3.0x10+ years. All of the unstable Isotopes are radioactive and are produced artificially. 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 46 isotopes of thulium. One of these, Tm-169 is the only stable isotope of thulium and accounts for the total atomic mass of the element. All the other isotopes are artificially produced and radioactive and have half-lives ranging from a few microseconds to two years. 

AH the isotopes of americium belonging to the transuranic subseries of the actinide series are radioactive and are artificially produced. Americium has similar chemical and physical characteristics and is hofflologous to europium, located just above it in the rare-earth (lanthanide) series on the periodic table. It is a bright-white malleable heavy metal that is somewhat similar to lead. Americiums melting point is 1,176°C, its boiling point is 2,607°C, and its density is 13.68g/cm. ... 

ISOTOPES There are a total of 21 isotopes of californium. None are found in nature and all are artificially produced and radioactive. Their half-lives range from 45 nanoseconds for californium-246 to 898 years for californium-251, which is its most stable isotope and which decays into curium-247 either though spontaneous fission or by alpha decay. 

Californium is a synthetic radioactive transuranic element of the actinide series. The pure metal form is not found in nature and has not been artificially produced in particle accelerators. However, a few compounds consisting of cahfornium and nonmetals have been formed by nuclear reactions. The most important isotope of cahfornium is Cf-252, which fissions spontaneously while emitting free neutrons. This makes it of some use as a portable neutron source since there are few elements that produce neutrons all by themselves. Most transuranic elements must be placed in a nuclear reactor, must go through a series of decay processes, or must be mixed with other elements in order to give off neutrons. Cf-252 has a half-life of 2.65 years, and just one microgram (0.000001 grams) of the element produces over 170 mhhon neutrons per minute. 

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