Precipitation altitude dependency

Sevruk B (1997) Regional dependency of precipitation-altitude relationship in the Swiss Alps. Glim Change 36(3 ) 355-369... 

Because it depends on a number of conditions that are themselves inherently variable, runoff tends to vary even more than precipitation, particularly over time. Seasonal runoff patterns depend largely on latitude and altitude of the watershed, due to the importance of snowmelt in runoff peaks. In high-latitude basins or those with significant high-altitude contribut-... 

Americium released to the atmosphere will be associated with particulate matter and will be deposited on land or surface water by dry deposition or wet deposition (Essien et al. 1985). Dry deposition results from gravitational settling and impaction on surfaces, and wet deposition returns americium to earth in precipitation. Radionuclides resulting from atmospheric weapons tests are often injected into the lower stratosphere, while other atmospheric releases are into the troposphere. The residence time of particles in the atmosphere will depend on the altitude, latitude, season, and hemisphere because of atmospheric... 

Precipitation shows great intramountain variation. Determining factors comprise windward and leeward orientation to prevailing wind directions and the effects of local wind systems that depend on physical processes and relief. In general, annual amounts of precipitation tend to increase with altitude. Precipitation can occur in solid or liquid form. Further, rain fog can substantially contribute to... 

The dependency of precipitation on altitude was the subject of numerous studies in the twentieth century, the findings of which were widely disparate (e.g. [5,14-20]). 

Today the assumption is that there is no direct causal correlation between altitude and precipitation volumes. Rather, the influence exerted by the relief on approaching air masses is of decisive importance for precipitation volumes [19]. These effects also vary depending on weather conditions, climate region and season. Moreover, the correlation between precipitation volumes and altitude becomes significantly weaker the shorter the duration of the event ([21], cf. also Fig. 10). 

Depending on the number of mineral phases and the uncertainty chosen the program displays one or more models in the output. Each model describes how much of each mineral was dissolved or precipitated to transform solution 1 (rainwater) into solution 2 (well water) (key word phase mole transfers). If you enter several initial solutions (e.g. 5 analyses of rainwater from 5 individual altitudes), the program will also calculate the share of the respective rainwater solutions contributing to the final solution (well water). 

It also follows from Fig. 43 that the composition of cloud and precipitation water, at least in the lower part of the cloud, does not depend very much upon the altitude. On the other hand, below the cloud base, which was generally between Hungerburg and Seegrube, the electrical conductivity increases by a factor of two, whioh means that rain-out and wash-out processes contribute about equally to the final concentration of salts in precipitation water measured at the surface. 

Whereas the atmosphere is uniform laterally and varies in stracture only with altitude, the hydrosphere consists of many distinct reservoirs of differing size. These are the seas and oceans, with a limited range of variation in composition and a definite vertical stracture lakes, with a wide range of chemical variation and also vertical stratification rivers, with highly variable composition but little stracture precipitation (rain, snow, fog, mist), whose only important compositional variable is pH (degree of acidity) and groundwater, whose composition depends strongly the character of the soils or minerals with which it is in contact. 

The environment in which the power-conditioning system operates will have a significant effect on reliability. Extremes of temperature, altitude, humidity, and vibration can be encountered in various applications. Extreme conditions can precipitate premature component failure and unexpected system shutdown. Most power-protection equipment is rated for operation from 0 to 40°C. During a commercial power failure, however, the ambient temperature of the equipment room can easily exceed either value, depending on the exterior temperature. Operating temperature derating typically is required for altitudes in excess of 1000 ft. 

Iodine-129 is produced in nuclear explosions of or Pu at approximate rates of 30 and 50 fiCi per kiloton (KT) TNT equivalent, respectively. The atmospheric transport and diffusion of radioiodine depend upon the initial height of the cloud and upon meteorological processes. A review of these factors was made by the United Nations Scientific Commitee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR, 1982). Fission products injected into the lower stratosphere have mean residence times of < 0.5 y while those from medium altitude explosions may have residence times of 2 years. The fission products that diffuse to the lower atmosphere (troposphere) are deposited (mainly by precipitation) in a matter of weeks. Dry deposition is a significant fraction of the total only in areas of low rainfall. 

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