Power penalties

The dispersion slope of DSF is 0.05 0.06 ps/nm /km. Therefore, the equalizer can compensate the higher-order dispersion of 300-km DSF. Figure 28(c) shows the relative delay time of 300-km DSF cascaded with the equalizer. The positive dispersion slope of the DSF is almost completely compensated by the PLC equalizer. A time-division (200 Gbit/s) multiplexed transmission experiment using a dispersion slope equalizer has been carried out over a 100-km fiber length (Takiguchi, Kawanishi, Takara, Kamatani etal., 1996). The pulse distortion caused by the dispersion slope was almost completely recovered, and the power penalty was improved by more than 4 dB. 

Terminating CMOS circuits to control reflection imposes a power penalty. 

The extinction ratio of a laser in an optical transmission link is defined as the ratio of the optical power for a logic 1 signal to the power for a logic 0 signal. Ideally, the extinction ratio should be infinite. However, the ratio must be finite in an actual system in order to reduce the rise time of the laser pulses [16]. The nonzero power transmission for a bit of logic 0 causes the power penalty. The power penalty due to the extinction ratio (in linear units) is estimated by... 

Fluctuations in the output intensity of a laser result in optical intensity noise, which is usually called the relative intensity noise [22]. The relative intensity noise is usually expressed in decibels per hertz (dB/Hz), and all types of lasers generate this noise. The power penalty due to the relative intensity noise (in linear units) is... 

Figure 7.15 Design of Gl POF acceptable for Gigabit Ethernet based on link power budget. Broken line denotes limit on power penalty due to the ISI specified by Gigabit Ethernet.

Id. For flyback-mode converters it is a good idea to select a power switch average current rating of about 1.5 times the maximum average input current of the supply. Another consideration is the loss. By overspecifying the current the /2i DS(on) loss (conduction loss) can be reduced with very little penalty on cost and input capacitance. 

In future, the economics of electric power generation is likely to be affected considerably by the amount of CO2 produced and the level of any environmental penalty... 

Power-Factor Correction. The induction motors used for oil-well pumping have high starting torques with relatively low power factors. Also, the average load on these motors is fairly low. Therefore, it is advisable to consider the installation of capacitors to avoid paying the penalty imposed by most power companies for low-power factor. They will be installed at the individual motors and switched with them, if voltage drop in the distribution system is to be corrected as well as power factor. Otherwise they may be installed in large banks at the distribution center, if it is more economical to do so. 

Within any particular installation, in instances where no financial penalties are incurred from the supply authority the power factor of individual circuits will influence both the losses within the installation and the system s voltage regulation. Therefore, power factor correction is... 

Electricity is normally charged for on the basis of power (kilowatts) and the supply authority must install plant whose rating (and therefore cost) is a function of the voltage of the system and the current which the consumer takes (i.e. kilo-volt-amps). The relationship between the two is kW = kVA x cos (j> where cos (j> is the power factor and is less than 1.0. In the case of loads which have a low power, factor the supply authority is involved in costs for the provision of plant which are not necessarily reflected in the kWh used. A penalty tariff may then be imposed which makes it economically worthwhile for the consumer to take steps to improve his power factor. Low power factors occur when the load is predominantly either inductive or capacitive in nature (as opposed to resistive). In most industrial circumstances where the load includes a preponderance of motors, the load is inductive (and the power factor is therefore lagging). Consequently, if the power factor is to be brought nearer to unity the most obvious method is to add a significant capacitive component to the load. 

Normal ventilation equipment can be used unless the fumes are corrosive or flammable. Powered equipment is normally employed to ensure that a steady airflow is provided. Since the ventilation will be needed in both summer and winter, there will be an energy penalty for the high level of airflow, and either the inlet airflow must be pre-heated or additional space heating will be required. The extra heat requirement is given by... 

An ED Regulation is directly applicable in each member state, without the need for transposition into national legislation. However, you will find that some supplementary national legislation is usually required so as to establish penalties and powers of enforcement at national level. 

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