Distortion causes

In addition to the distortions caused by the probes, there were also distortions caused by filtering the signals within the eddy-current test instruments. To achieve the highest possible dynamics with the test instruments, high-pass filters with a high rate of rise, but also a long reverberation time were used. Thus, the recorded C-scan pictures sometimes shows strong echo effects. 

By using absolute probes with selective resolution, the distortions caused by the probe (probe aperture) could be minimized. This results in images which come very close to the actual physical conditions. 

Operated broadband amplifier 1, has uniform (not worse than 1 dB) frequency feature within the range of 1 to 50 MHz and the range of reinforcement from 0 to 90 dB. The input cascade has an impedance switch that enables to matching of sensors of different types and to avoid signals and distortions caused by the cable. 

The distortion caused by the field allows an electron to pass from the molecule to the tip if the applied potential is positive or from the tip to the molecule if the potential is negative. This is called field ionization (FI), and the electron transfer occurs through quantum tunneling. Little or no vibrational excitation occurs, and the ionization is described as mild or soft. 

Figure 16.9 Voltage distortion caused by different types of thyristor drives (with the use of IGBTs, however, the distortion would be greatly reduced)...

Figure 11. Peak Distortion Caused by a Freundlich Type Isotherm...

More pumps fail as a direct result of improper installation than any other single factor. The predominant reasons for these failures include starvation, caused by inadequate or inconsistent suction conditions distortion, caused by pipe strain or improper foundation and turbulent that results from piping or entrained gas problems. Centrifugal pump installation must follow Hydraulic Institute Standards, which provide specific guidelines to prevent these installation and performance problems. This chapter will address the fundamental requirements for proper installation. 

One method that can be used to overcome most of the environment-induced problems is to use plastic tubing to shield the beam. This tubing can be placed between the transmitter and receiver of the optical-alignment fixture. It should be sized to permit transmission and reception of the light beam, but small enough to prevent distortion caused by atmospheric or environmental conditions. Typically, 2-inch, thin-wall tubing provides the protection required for most applications. 

The load on the wheel produces a contact area of finite length a. The distortion caused by the load is ignored in the brush model. This means that the above relation is really a shear relation. The fibers have a large compression stiffness and a small shear stiffness, which in fact is true for rubbers. The large contact length is created by the air inflation chamber of the tire. Solid mbber wheels bulge out. 

Figure 3.5 Correct line shape and some typical distortions caused by poor shimming.

An extensive computational analysis expanded the range of the c-d distances for reactive cyclic enediynes to 2.9-3.4 A.38 By comparing unsubstituted enediynes with dialkyl-substituted enediynes, it was found that the activation enthalpy is dependent on factors other than the c-d distance and that reactivity hinges on a subtle interplay of steric and electronic effects that accompany distortion caused by incorporation into a macrocycle. For example, since alkyl substituents stabilize acetylenic bonds to a greater extend than olefinic bonds,39 such substituents stabilize the starting material, thus increasing both the activation barrier and the reaction endothermicity. 

The cyclopentyl cation (39) undergoes a rapid degenerate rearrangement which can be frozen out at cryogenic temperatures as shown by solid state CPMAS 13C NMR spectra.57 MP2/6-31G(d,p) calculations show that cyclopentyl cation has a twisted conformation 4058 in which the axial hydrogens are bend toward the carbocation center. This is due to the pronounced geometrical distortion caused by the hyper-conjugative interaction of the /i-cr-C-H-bond with the formally vacant 2pz-orbital at the C+ carbon of this secondary carbocation. 

This intermolecular attraction occurs in all substances. It is usually only significant for nonpolar substances. It arises from the momentary distortion of the electron cloud. This distortion causes a very weak temporary dipole, which... 

The most serious causes of error are (i) wave and peak distortion caused by excessively fast scan rates, which are themselves caused by diffusion being an inefficient mass transport mechanism, (ii) current maxima caused by convective effects as the mercury drop forms and then grows, and (iii) IR drop, i.e. the resistance of the solution being non-zero. Other causes of error can be minimized by careful experimental design. 

The effects of visual scaling and numerical coding are very similar. However, the distortions caused by numerical coding are not always as readily apparent as some distortions caused by visual scaling. For example, rotatable designs in coded factor spaces might not produce rotatable designs in uncoded factor spaces (see Section 12.9). We simply warn the reader that concepts such as rotatable , circular . 

Tetrahedrally distorted from square plane owing to steric effects. Also rectangular distortion caused by bite of bipy. 

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