Positive externalities

Positive external pressure, P, on surface of fluid on pump suction is used as a positive integer, expressed as feet of fluid, (4-). 

Rotative speed, revolutions per minute = RPM = rpm P = Positive external pressure on surface of liquid ( + ) or partial vacuum on surface of liquid ( —)... 

Those inventions that are valuable for society, which include innovative pharmaceuticals, generate positive externalities, that is, the benefits falls to society at large. The sum of these benefits gives the social benefit or value of the invention. In this way, patents represent the appropriation of part of this social value. Naturally, when businesses decide to undertake a project they do so with their own benefit in mind. Some research, particularly basic research, might not be undertaken in these circumstances, and therefore governments decide to invest to fill the gap that may be left by the patent system. Basic research allows the development of multiple applications and the discovery of scientific principles. The field of genetics is a prime example of this. 

Patents make it difficult to take advantage of positive externalities - by means of developments of knowledge - and promote negative externalities through patent races . So, while research provides more knowledge to others,... 

Cockbum and Henderson17 showed that the positive externality effect is stronger than the patent race. Although their results are not conclusive and they state clearly that it is impossible to say whether there is an excess or a shortage of research, this is an interesting example of analysis of competition in innovation and its effects on ten major US pharmaceutical corporations. 

On the allocative efficiency of pharmaceutical research, there are theoretical reasons why there could be either under- or overinvestment in research. On the one hand, research activities, and particularly basic research, generate substantial positive externalities in that their total benefits to society exceed those accruing to the particular firm. As a result, firms do not incorporate their full measure of benefits when making their investment decisions. 

Yet, at least some medications have the capacity to significantly impact the health and well-being not only of the individuals who take them, but also of others. In essence, these medications have positive externalities, benefits that are not captured by the individuals who consume the drugs. Medications may also impose risks, or... 

Such neutralization should thus impose penalties on negative externalities and bonuses for positive externalities. However, as the externalities typically will change over time and as overall optimal operation mode depends on a number of discrete decisions such as flow directions and compressor modes, it is generally not possible to develop a tariff scheme that supports the optimal mode. 

Successful detection of S3P-labeled molecules separated by capillary electrophoresis using the above detection schemes, in which a sensor was positioned external to the separation channel, was made possible by several factors. These included (1) the large energy associated with 0 decay of S3P (1.7 MeV), (2) the high sensitivity and small size of commercially available semiconductor detectors, (3) the availability of efficient solid scintillator materials and sensitive photomultiplier tubes, (4) the short lengths of fused silica (capillary wall thickness) and aqueous electrolyte through which the radiation must pass before striking the detector, and (5) the relatively short half-life of S3P (14.3 days). 

The fxS protein is associated with the fil protein, and a complex of these proteins has been determined (Liemann et al., 2002). /il forms a T=13 layer in the reovirus particles but is not present in the crystal structure of the capsid (Reinisch et al., 2000). The protein is similar to OrbivirusYPl in that it has a jelly-roll domain positioned external to a base formed mostly by helices. The jelly-roll domain contains a few extra strands, and in the sequence it is flanked by the residues forming the helical region. Although this is true also for the corresponding region in VP7 of bluetongue virus, the fold in this part of the protein is different. 

Let me give some specific examples of the invisible hand and counterfinality from Marx s writings. The positive externalities, to use the... 

Externalities used here in the sense of market externalities (positive externalities and pecuniary externalities notwithstanding). 

Before I proceed to the more interesting case of endogenous emotions, let me note a curious feature of Becker s discussion of envy and altruism. In A Treatise on the Family from 1991, envy is treated together with altruism as respectively negative and positive externalities in the utility function. In a 1974 article, "A Theory of Social Interaction,"234 envy is paired with respect rather than with altruism. The general idea is that a person might maximize utility by... 

Presence of externalities. Many health interventions—vaccinations, treatment of communicable diseases, removal of vector breeding sites— benefit not only the person being treated but others as well. Family planning is also associated with positive externalities, or spillover effects, since limiting the number of children reduces a variety of social costs associated with excessive population growth. 

Prompt detection and treatment of tuberculosis yields positive externalities, in the form of higher economic productivity of the infected person and the preservation of the health of people who otherwise would have been infected. Because tuberculosis disproportionately infects the poor, treatment subsidies also increase income equity in health outcomes. Since the costs of treatment are high, subsidies can also prevent patients from being driven into poverty. 

FIGURE 41.4 Examples of electrophoresis microchip fabricated in PT. (A) Microdevice with cupper tape electrodes (a) positioned externally over the channel for C D measurements. Point b is a representation for the solution reservoirs. (Reprinted from do Lago, C.L., Silva, H.D.T., Neves, C.A., Brito-Neto, J.G.A. and Fracassi da Silva, J.A., Anal. Chem., 75, 3853, 2003. With permission.) (B) Microdevice layout for end-channel amperometric detection. S, SW, and b represent, sample, sample waste, and buffer reservoirs, respectively. (Reprinted from do Lago, C.L., et al.. Anal. Chem., 75, 3853, 2003. and Coltro, W.K.T., et al.. Electrophoresis, 25, 3832, 2004. With permission.)... 

An electron located in the lower half of an allowed energy band has a positive effective mass. In the presence of a positive external force, it will be subjected to a positive acceleration value, which is in accordance with the findings of classical mechanics. 

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