Population group

Criteria stipulate conditions of exposure and may refer to sensitive population groups or to the joint effects of several pollutants. Air quality criteria are descriptive. They describe effects that can be expected to occur wherever the ambient air level of a pollutant reaches or exceeds a specific concentration for a particular time period. Criteria will change as new information becomes available. 

To quantify the effect of a chemical on a population, groups of organisms are exposed to different concentrations of the chemical for a predetermined interval. The concentration at which 50% of the test population responds is known as the EC u (effective concentration 50%) when death is the measured response, it is called the (lethal concentration 50%). 

The graphite-metal halides constitute the most populous group of intercalation compounds. Most of the investigative efforts have been directed towards the metal chlorides, particularly FeCls, whereas considerably less is known about the metal bromides S21). Compounds... 

For those infectious diseases that are transmitted to humans via insect vectors the onset and decline phases of epidemics are rarely observed other than as a reflections of the seasonal variation in the prevalence of the insect. Rather, the disease is endemic within the population group and has a steady incidence of new cases. Diseases such as these are generally controlled by public health measures and environmental control of the vector with vaccination and immunization being deployed to protect individuals (e.g. yellow fever vaccination). 

Fig. 16.3 Propagated outbreaks of infection showing the incidence of new cases ( ), diseased individuals ( ), and recovered immune (A). The dotted line indicates the incidence pattern for an incompletely mixed population group.

Dose Assessment—An estimate of the radiation dose to an individual or a population group usually by means of predictive modeling techniques, sometimes supplemented by the results of measurement. 

The simplest approach is to simply identify the likelihood of contact between people and pollutant at significant concentrations. This is often the extent of "risk" analysis of preliminary, multi-media, problem-scoping studies of hazardous or toxic materials (2). In the most detailed approach, finely resolved spatial and temporal patterns ("micro-environments") of concentration are measured for each of many individuals representing finely resolved population groups ("cohorts") characterized by unique "activity patterns" (3, 4 ). 

Englert N, Krause C, Thron H-L, et al. 1987. Studies on lead exposure of selected population groups in West Berlin, West Germany. Trace Elem Med 4 112-116. 

Roels HA, Lauwerys R. 1987. Evaluation of dose-effect and dose-response relationships for lead exposure in different Belgian population groups (fetus, child, adult men and women). Trace Elements in Medicine 4 80-87. 

In Chapter 7, professor B. Gonzalez Lopez-Valcarcel of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria analyses the participation of the insuree in the payment of the price of the pharmaceutical. In spite of the widespread application of pharmaceutical co-payment in European health systems, the author observes that this mechanism does not appear to have been very effective in cost containment. Co-payments represent a way of making the user share the burden of the cost rather than an essential source of income for the public system. Theory and comparative experience of the system alike indicate that the indiscriminate application of co-payments is a source of inequalities, and that in any event its effects on consumption depend largely on prescriber incentives. For this reason the author recommends that co-payments should not be uniform for different population groups, and that they should not be applied in isolation, as their effectiveness is enhanced in combination with other instruments. 

The term alcoholism as a disease entity was coined by the Swedish physician, Magnus Huss, in the mid-19th century to describe the harmful physical and mental effects of chronic excessive alcohol consumption. This strictly medical model held sway for almost a century before it became apparent that a variety of psychosocial factors also influence the onset and course of the disorder. Indeed, drinking behavior and the problems attributable to excessive drinking, including alcoholism, vary widely within and across different cultures and population groups, and even within the same person across the fife span. In the last 30 years, basic and... 

The second milestone event in the USA in the 1990s was passage of the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) in 1996. The goal of the FQPA was to assure a reasonable certainty of no harm as a result of exposure to pesticides for all US population groups. The FQPA incorporated into federal law the major recommendations of the 1993 National Academy of Sciences (NAS)/NRC report, as well as the recommendations of a 1987 NAS/NRC report entitled Regulating Pesticides in Food The Delaney Paradox (National Research Council, 1987). 

Mean Rn concentrations in the population groups under study varied from 80 Bqm 3 to 180 Bqm 3.)... 

It is possible to infer cross population risk if the detailed dose delivered to target cells in bronchial epithelium is calculated for the various population groups since it is the dose which confers the risk. 

Pohl, E., F. Steinhausler, W. Hofmann, and J. Pohl-Ruling, Methodology of Measurements and Statistical Evaluation of Radiation Burden to Various Population Groups From All Internal and External Natural Sources, in Proceedings of Biological and Environmental Effects of Low-Level Radiation, International Atomic Energy Agency), Vol.II, pp. 305-315, Vienna, Austria (1976). 

Nowadays, obesity is considered a major public health issue, especially in most developed countries, because it is widely spread across population groups and because it contributes to the development of chronic diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. 

Figure 3.38 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the Galaxy, indicating the main stellar population groups (disk, bulge, halo and solar cylinder) that will figure in subsequent discussions and Table 7.9 gives some relevant statistics. 

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