Photovoltaic modules

Photovoltaic devices typically consist of a series of thin semiconductor layers that are designed to convert sunlight to dkect-current electricity (see Semiconductors). As long as the device is exposed to sunlight, a photovoltaic (PV) cell produces an electric current proportional to the amount of light it receives. The photovoltaic effect, first observed in 1839, did not see commercial appHcation until the 1950s when photovoltaic modules were used to power early space sateHites. Many good descriptions of the photovoltaic phenomenon are available (7). 

Figure 1.3. Worldwide production volume of photovoltaic modules. [Data source European Photovoltaic Industry Association, 2006.]...

Figure 4.23 Solar cells are efficiently isolated with a vapour-deposited ORMOSIL layer that ensures long-term durability of commercial photovoltaic modules. (Reproduced from ref. 18, with permission.)...

Photovoltaic materials, 23 39-45 Photovoltaic modules, 23 47-48 Photovoltaics, gallium use in, 12 352... 

Even in the Renaissance, the deceptively realistic imitation of nature in art n/as considered proof of an artist s superior technical ability. The Field of Flowers playfully takes up this artistic tradition of imitating nature and sets the petals in motion, causing them to rhythmically open and close. The photovoltaic module that supplies the energy for this is in the center the petals have a reflective coating on the outside, so that they mirror their surroundings when closed. 

Thin films are suitable candidates for low-cost photovoltaic modules because of reduced material consumption and predicted manufacturing advantages due to... 

Kay A (1996) Low cost photovoltaic modules based on dye sensitized nanocrystalline titanium dioxide and carbon powder. Solar Energy Mater Solar Cells 44 99-117 Wang X, Zhi L, Muellen K (2008) Transparent, conductive graphene electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Lett 8 323-327... 

Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing Biomedical Products Technologies Electric Utility Solar Power Generation Optoelectronics... 

Circuit Board Printing Computer Inductors Electronic Power Elements Solar Cells Photovoltaic Modules... 

Fig. 21 Production of DSC prototypes by Aisin Seiki in Japan. Note the monolithic design of the photovoltaic modules and the use of carbon as interconnect and counter electrode material...

The operation of a photovoltaic system is governed by the current-voltage characteristic curves of the photovoltaic module. Such a set of curves, for different values of the incident solar irradiance and constant photovoltaic module temperature, is shown in Figure 2.4. The curves consist of two parts. In the first part the photovoltaic module behaves as a constant-current source, with amplitude proportional to the solar irradiance level. In the rest of the curve, current decays... 

Manufacturers provide operating characteristics of photovoltaic modules in standard conditions, which are defined by a solar irradiance value equal to 1000 W/m2 and a photovoltaic module temperature equal to 25°C. The most important of them is the maximum power that can be obtained at these conditions and is used for the determination of the photovoltaic module nominal power. However, in a considered site, solar irradiance changes during the day. In addition, depending on the environmental conditions, due to the internal thermal losses of the photovoltaic module, its temperature also varies. As a result, the maximum extracted power is usually lower than that provided by the manufacturers. 

For the characterization of solar resource, measured irradiance data as well as site-specific parameters are needed. These include geographic information (site latitude and longitude) for the calculation of the solar angle that also varies during the day, as well as ambient temperature for the estimation of the photovoltaic module temperature (Manwell, 1998). 

Single-crystal silicon, solar-cell modules presently cost 5-10 per peak watt (Wp), and the world market for 1983 is estimated to be 18 - 20 MWP. By 1990, the annual sales for photovoltaic modules may be greater than 1 billion (Brandhorst et al., 1982). 

Amorphous silicon photovoltaic modules are likely to capture a growing... 

S. Kurtz, D. Myers, T. Townsend, C. Whitaker, A. Maish, R. Hulstrom, and K. Emery, Outdoor rating conditions for photovoltaic modules and systems. Solar Energy Materials Solar Cells 62 379 (2000). 

L. Ji and R. McConnell, New Qualification Test Procedures for Concentrator Photovoltaic Modules and Assemblies, Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Waikoloa, Hawaii, May 2006. 

Electrical insulation, wires and cables, flexible printed circuits, ultrapure components for semiconductor manufacture, condensers, batteries, barrier films for packaging of sensitive electronic parts, films for photovoltaic modules... 

The most prevalent ternary chalcopyrite materials are p-type Cu(In Ga)(S Se)2 (CIGS), which crystallize in the tetragonal chalcopyrite stmcture and are used in the photovoltaic modules. The complexity of the phase diagrams for Cu-III-VI materials results in a large number of intrinsic... 

---