Phonology

T. Kohonen, K. Masisara, and T. Saramaki, Phonotopic Maps—Insightful Representation of Phonological Features for Speech Representation, Proceedings IEEE 7th International Conference, Montreal, Canada (1984). 

Finally, it is interesting to compare NETtalk s skills with the skills of commercially available text-to-speech systems such as DECtalk. Unlike NETtalk, DECtalk uses both extensive (and labor intensive) look up tables that store the phonetic transcription of common and not so common words and sets of phonological rules for words not in its main look up table. While DECtalk performs undeniably better than NETtalk, the comparison is not really a fair one. DECtalk is a combined r sult of many years worth of careful linguistic analysis and codification. NETtalk, on the other hand, is a self-contained. system that (in the span of a few hours worth of DEC VAX CPU time) can learn enough on its own from a set of simple examples to be both intelligible and accurate. 

Phonological Effects.—In the solid stata its local action is remarkably energetic, rapidly destroying the tissue with which it comes in coutact. When dissolved it is also powerfully corrosive, and consequently an energetic poison in lai ge doses. It excites no constitutional action, except what depends on the local injury it occasions. In medicinal doses it possesses antacid and antilithic properties, and is administared in some hitter infusion. 

Vigneau M, Beaucousin V, Herve PY, Duffau H, Crivello F, et al. 2006. Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas Phonology, semantics, and sentence processing. Neuroimage 30(4) 1414-1432. 

These labels are given in as notational shorthand, which conflates phonological elements of both Yucatec and Mopan. 

Wilson, M., and Emmorey, K. (1997a). A phonological loop in visuo-spatial working memory evidence from American Sign Language. Memory and Cognition, 25 (3), 313-320. 

Frankie, G. W., H. G. Baker, and P. A. Opler 1974. Comaparative phonological studies of trees in tropical wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 62 881-919. 

Diaz, A., Najt, J. 1990. Etude des peuplements des microarthropodes dans deux paramos de letat de Merida (Venezuela). I. Abondance et phonologic. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 27 159-184. Diaz, A., Pefaur, J. E., Duranf P. 1997. Ecology of the South American paramos with emphasis on the fauna of the Venezuelan Paramos. F. E. Wielgolasld (ed.). Polar and alpine Tundra. Ecosystems of the World. . Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 263-310. 

Boethel, D.J. J.S. Russin A.T. Weir M.B. Layton J.S. Mink M.L. Boyd. Delayed maturity associated with southern green stink bug (Heteroptera Pentatomidae) injury at various stink bug phonological stages./. EconomicEntomol. 2000, 93, 707-712. 

Hockett, C. A Manual of Phonology. Waverly Press, Baltimore (1955)... 

We can also consider the phonological hierarchy, which is a different, parallel hierarchy which focuses on the sound patterns in a sentence. In this, we have the additional units of syllables, which are a structural sound unit used to group phonemes together and phonological phrases, another structural sound unit that groups words together within the sentence. Representations using these units can also be expressed in a hierarchy of sentences, prosodic phrases, words, syllables and phonemes. 

The difference between the two hierarchies is that the phonological one concentrates on the sound patterns alone, and is not concerned with any aspect of meaning, while the syntactic one ignores the sound patters, and concentrates on the grammatical and semantic relationships between the units. 

Prosodic phrasing is to some extent governed by purely phonological, phonetic or acoustic factors which can override the syntax. In the classic example, Chomsky [89] commented on the fact that in... 

The field of metrieal phonology still survives today, but unfortunately bears little resemblance to the elegance and power of the original theory. 

Emphasis, prominence, accent and stress are all terms used to indicate the relative strength of a unit in speech. These terms are used with a variety of definitions in the literature, so to avoid confusion we will use these these terms as follows. Stress indicates lexical stress, which is an inherent property of words, and indicates for instance that the first syllable in table is stronger than the second, while the second syllable in machine is stronger than the first. We discuss this type of stress more fully in the section on phonology in Chapter 7. Prominence is used to indicate the strength of a word, syllable or phrase when it is used in a sentence. We will use the term accent solely to indicate intonational phenomena associated with pitch, and emphasis to indicate a specific use of prominence in discourse. 

Beyond this, we again find that there is httle agreement about how to describe pitch accents and boundary tones. Some theories state there are a fixed inventory of these, while some describe them with continuous parameters. The nature of pitch accents and boundary tones is disputed, with some theories describing them as tones or levels while others say their characteristic properly is pitch movement. One prominent theory states that we have an intonational phonology that parallels normal phonology, and as such we have inventories of contrasting units (sometimes called... 

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