Observational sciences

Biver N ef a/1997 Evolution of the outgassing of oomet Flale-Bopp (C/1995 01) from radio observations Science 275 1915-18... 

Inverse problems are very common in experimental and observational sciences. Typically, they are encountered when a large number of parameters (as many as or more than measurements) are to be retrieved from measured data assuming a model of the data - also called the direct model. Such problems are ill-conditioned in the sense that a simple inversion of the direct model applied directly to the data yields a solution which exhibits significant, or even dominant, features which are completely different for a small change of the input data (for instance due to a different realization of the noise). Since the objective constraints set by the data alone are not sufficient to provide a unique and... 

Proper eye protection should be worn at all times by anyone performing or observing science activities. 

Further developments had to wait for the appearance of the 1987 supernova and its detailed observation across the whole wavelength spectrum. Only then did nucleosynthesis become an observational science in its own right. 

Arking, A., Absorption of Solar Energy in the Atmosphere Discrepancy between Model and Observations, Science, 273, 779-782 (1996). 

Bibring, J.-P., Langevin, Y., Gendrin, A. et al. (2005) Mars surface diversity as revealed by the OMEGA/Mars Express observations. Science, 307, 1576-1581. 

Mechanical rotation of the c subunit oligomer in ATP synthase (F0F[) direct observation. Science 286, 1722-1724. 

Sambongi, Y., Iko, Y., Tanabe, M., Omote, H., Iwamoto-Kihara, A., Ueda, I., Yanagida, T., Wada, Y., and Futai, M. (1999). Mechanical rotation of the c subunit oligomer in ATP synthase (F0F1) Direct observation. Science 286, 1722-1724. 

Anderson, J.G., Margitan, J.J. and Stedman, D.H. (1977) Atomic chlorine and the chlorine monoxide radical in the stratosphere three in situ observations. Science, 198, 501. 

But the relative strengths ofatomic lines differ from star to star. The confluence of atomic physics, of quantum mechanics, and of statistical mechanics has allowed astronomers to understand these variations in detail. These issues were at the heart of the revolution that was 20th-century physics but today they are understood. The net resultis that other stars have different abundances of the elements than does our own. Perhaps one should say modestly different. The broad comparisons between the elements remain valid - iron is quite abundant, vanadium is rather rare. That remains true but many stars have many fewer of each. A few have more of each. This was a great discovery of 20th-century astronomy, because it established the nucleosynthesis of the elements as an observational science. Astronomers also learned how old the stars are, for there do exist telltale signs of a star s age. The oldest stars are found to have many fewer of all chemical elements (except the three lightest elements) than does the Sun. These came to be called metal-poor stars, because the heavy elements were lumped together under the term metals by astronomers. It may seem paradoxical that the oldest stars have the fewest metals but the key is that the abundances within... 

Y. Sambongi, Y. Iko, M. Tanabe, H. Omote, A. Iwamoto-Kihara, I. Ueda, T. Yanagida, Y. Wada, and M. Futai. 1999. Mechanical rotation of the c subunit oligomer in ATP synthase (FoFj) Direct observation Science 286 1722-1724. (PubMed)... 

Pettengill G. H., Ford P. G., and Simpson R. A. (1996) Electrical properties of the Venus surface from bistatic radar observations. Science 272, 1628-1631. 

The aim of this book is to provide an understanding of both fundamental and applied aspects of low-temperature combustion chemistry and autoignition. The topic is rooted in classical observational science and has grown. 

Fitzpatrick defines science as, "science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observations which result in the formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and theories being subject to modification in the light of further empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring and refining knowledge". 

Fig. 35. Arrangement for observing rotation ofthe y-subunit in the Os pa y subcomplex (A) and that of the c-subunit oligomer in EcFq Fi or (a3 P3T8 e)/(a b2 c,2) (B). See text for details. (A) adapted from Noji, Yasuda, Yoshida and Kinoshita, Jr (1997) Direct observation of the rotation ofFyATPase. Nature 386 300 and (B) from Sambongi, Iko, Tanabe, Omote, Iwamoto-Kihara, Ueda, Yanagida, Wada and Futai (1999) Mechanicai rotation of thee subunit oiigomer in ATP synthase (FqF ) Direct observation. Science 286 1722.

Y Sambongi, Y Iko, M Tanabe, H Omote, A Iwamoto-Kihara, I Ueda, TYanagida, YWada and M Futai (1999) Mechanical rotation ofthe c subunit oligomer In ATP synthase (Fc,F ) Direct observation. Science 286 1722-1724... 

After visiting hundreds of schools, observing science classes, interviewing science teachers, students, principals and parents some key problems regarding science education at +2 stage have been identified. They are as follows ... 

Crystallography first developed as an observational science an adjunct to the study of minerals. Minerals were, (and still are), described by their habit, the shape that a mineral specimen may exhibit, which may vary from an amorphous mass to a well-formed crystal. Indeed, the... 

Epidemiology is an observational science and, therefore, causal inference involves a somewhat different approach to that which is generally used in laboratory-based sciences. Since the epidemiologist cannot usually conduct controlled experiments,... 

T. Steinmetz et al., Laser frequency combs for astronomical observations. Science 321,... 

Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology. Astronomy is an observational science. Observations are made by a variety of instruments, including optical telescopes, radio telescopes, infrared and ultraviolet telescopes, and gamma-ray and X-ray telescopes. However, instead of simply taking photographs to study, modern astronomers measure spectra, intensities, and many other properties to understand the olgects of their study. Some of the instruments they use are located at ground-based observatories with lai e telescopes, and others are located in orbit around Earth in space-based observatories, the most famous of which is the Hubble Space Telescope. 

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