Nontraditional techniques

The traditional electrochemical techniques are based on the measurement of current and potential, and, in the case of liquid electrodes, of the surface tension. While such measurements can be very precise, they give no direct information on the microscopic structure of the electrochemical interface. In this chapter we treat several methods which can provide such information. None of them is endemic to electrochemistry they are mostly skillful adaptations of techniques developed in other branches of physics and chemistry. 

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These specialized forms of CVD, referred to as nontraditional techniques for the purpose of this review, include laser (LCVD), aerosol (ACVD), hot filament (HFCVD), and ion beam (IBGVD) chemical vapor deposition. In such enhanced CVD technologies, a thermal CVD reaction occurs simultaneously with another driving force, which results... 

This book is the second of two volumes about fluoropolymers. The division of the volumes is based on the processing techniques of commercial fluoropolymers. Volume One covers the homopolymers of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) or polytetrafluoroethylene plastics, which are processed by nontraditional techniques. The extremely high melt viscosity of TFE homopolymers precludes its processing by conventional melt processing methods such as injection molding and melt extrusion. The copolymers of TFE and other fluorocarbon polymers, which are processed by melt-processing methods, have been covered in Volume Two. This book is devoted to exploring the various perflu-orinated and partially fluorinated copolymers of tetrafluorethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene. Polymers of vinyl fluoride and vinylidene fluoride that are, for the most part, melt-processible have been discussed in the second volume. 

Reflectance spectroscopy was among the first nontraditional techniques used to study electrode surfaces.This method can provide information on an atomic or molecular level, is nondestructive, and, quite importantly for many electrochemists, is applicable in situ, i.e., in the presence of the bulk electrolyte. Although the bulk electrolyte imposes limitations on the spectral range due to its transmission properties, which allow an easy access of the l-to-6-eV range only, these limits have recently been extended considerably into the infrared and the X-ray region by the development of optical thin-layer cells (see Chapters 5 and 6). 

It is demonstrated here that extrusion is an effective tool for texturing whey proteins to create new functions for dairy proteins and that thermally denatured WPl is a unique ingredient that can be used in large amounts in nontraditional applications for non-TWPl. This review covers the use of extrusion texturized dairy ingredients in foods however, there are other examples of fhe successful use of this technique along with the product, TWPl in different types of nonfood applications, such as in biodegradable films, and bioplastics. 

Many technicians may not be famihar with terms such as sublingual (under the tongue), buccal (between the cheek and gingiva), otic, and so on. A clear description of each of these nontraditional routes (i.e., other than gavage routes) should be discussed with technicians, and instructions may also be written down and given to them. Demonstrations are often useftd to illustrate selected techniques of administration (e.g., to use an inhaler or nebulizer). Some chemicals must be placed by technicians into body orifices (e.g., medicated intrauterine devices such as Proges-terset). 

Potential sources of useful information can extend far beyond the area of the process in which the situation occurred. The search for information may lead to obscure and nontraditional places. The data analysis performed using the techniques discussed in Chapter 9, along with the information in this chapter, should lead the team to identify these data sources. 

Besides general synthetic strategies, some new methods and techniques are also worthy of discussion. These nontraditional methods have already contributed, and can be expected to contribute in the future, to the progress of oligosaccharide synthesis. 

Another recent, nontraditional investigation involved the use a of pump-probe technique to study the laser-ablation of tooth enamel [80] and the influence of an optically thick water layer applied onto the tooth surface [81]. Laser ablation was performed in the presence and absence of water, and synchrotron FT-IRM used to probe the chemical composition of the enamel in the thus-formed crater. FT-IRM revealed the formation of new mineral phases deposited along the crater walls after repetitive laser pulses, while the nonapatitic phases reduced the efflciency of... 

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