Most-general literal

As we ve seen, stoichiometry calculations for chemical reactions always require working in moles. Thus, the most generally useful means of expressing a solution s concentration is molarity (M), the number of moles of a substance (the solute) dissolved in each liter of solution. For example, a solution made by dissolving 1.00 mol (58.5 g) of NaCl in enough water to give 1.00 L of solution has a concentration of 1.00 mol/L, or 1.00 M. The molarity of any solution is found by dividing the number of moles of solute by the number of liters of solution. 

General Equation for Liquid Junction Potential.—When the two solutions forming the junction contain different electrolytes, as in many chemical cells, the situation is more complicated it is convenient, therefore, to consider here the most general case. Suppose a cell contains a solution in which there are several ions of concentration Ci, C2, , c,-, g.-ions per liter, and suppose this forms a junction with another solution in which the corresponding ionic concentrations are C + dci, C2 + dc2, i Ci + dc, the valences of the ions are Zi, Z2f , and their... 

Scientific literacy is based on the understanding of the most general principles and a broad knowledge of science. A society that is scientifically aware possesses facts and vocabulary sufficient to understand the context of the daily news. If one can understand articles about genetic engineering, the ozone hole, and greenhouse effect as well as sports, politics, arts, or the theater, then one is scientifically literate. 

The focus of this chapter is Michael Strevens (2008) kairetic account of scientific explanation, which offers an interesting solution to the problem of explanatory idealization. In its most general terms, Strevens claims that the scientific explanation of events and regularities consists of a process of abstraction away from detailed, veridical causal models in order to generate causal models that contain only those factors that make a difference to the causal production of the explanatory target. Strevens approach to idealized explanatory casual models is simply to assert that while idealizations are literally false, they distort only non-difference-makers. Hence they do not misrepresent the explanatorily relevant causal factors that... 

If such an operation is not possible, the most generally recommended method is to aerate the wine. The effectiveness of this method is based on the slow oxidation of sulfur dioxide. During the days that follow, the higher the temperature, the more rapidly the concentration decreases. Aeration has a limited effectiveness, and 16 mg of oxygen per liter is required to oxidize 64 mg of total sulfur dioxide per liter. This approximately corresponds to a decrease of 42 mg of free SO2 per liter, taking into account the dissociation of combinations. 

The range of the airflow in ventilation systems is wide. The flow rate in an individual supply or exhaust terminal may only be a few liters per second, while the flow in a main duct or supply chamber of a large sy.stem may be in excess of 100 cubic meters per second. No general method to deal with the whole range exists. Each case requires individual consideration for the most suitable methods and instrumentation to be selected. 

Carbohydrates were first analyzed in the early nineteenth century and described as compounds that were literally hydrates of carbon because they had the general formula CX(H20)X. In recent years, carbohydrate molecules are generally classified on the basis of their structures, not their formulas. Among the compounds that belong to this family are cellulose, starch, glycogen, and most sugars. 

Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant drug in the world. It occurs naturally in coffee, tea, and the cola nut and is added to many soft drinks. Many of us consume coffee and soft drinks because of the desirable stimulatory effects produced by caffeine many of us have consumed too much caffeine and felt the consequences. The undesirable effects of caffeine, the agitation, the inability to concentrate, the mild tremors, and the general unpleasantness, are a form of neurotoxicity. Literally your brain, and more specifically, the adenosine receptors in your brain, has too much caffeine. These effects are a reversible form of neurotoxicity. Fortunately, we metabolize caffeine quickly and the undesirable effects end. By experience we have learned how to moderate our caffeine consumption to avoid the unpleasant side effects. A great deal of money is made from the neuroactive and physiological effects of caffeine. You can learn more about this fascinating drug in the chapter on caffeine. 

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