Mineral waters, classification

See also Minerals recovery/processing Minerals recovery/processing, 16 595-668. See also Minerals concentration Minerals processing classification in, 16 618-622 economic aspects of, 16 606-609 environmental aspects of, 16 609—610 flow sheets in, 16 603-605 materials handling in, 16 660-663 from ocean waters, 17 695—697 ores, 16 598-603 process control in, 16 663-665 size reduction (comminution) in, 16 610-615... 

Ciosek et al. (2005) used potentiometric ion-selective sensors for discriminating different brands of mineral waters and apple juices. PC A and ANN classification were used as pattern recognition tools, with a test set validation (Ciosek et al., 2004b). In a subsequent study, the same research group performed the discrimination of five orange juice brands, with the same instrumental device. A variable selection was performed, by means of strategies based on PCA and PLS-DA scores. The validation was correctly performed with an external test set. 

Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, 1780-1849, Professor of chemistry at Jena. His discovery of the triads was an important step toward the systematic classification of the chemical elements He wrote many books and papers on general and pharmaceutical chemistry, mineral waters, the manufacture of vinegar, and the use of platinum as a catalyst, The original of this portrait is in the City Museum at Jena. 

The Editor agrees with Pereira that the best classification to adopt is that of grouping mineral waters into four classes, videlicet, chalybeate, sulphurous, acidulous, and saline. 

Dumitrescu and Kekedy used the FHDC procedure for the classification of mineral waters. Each sample was characterized by the analytical chemical data for eight major components CO2, HCO, Cl , Ca, Mg ", Fe, Na, and mineralization. Tentatively, classifications were made with a smaller number of components. The components present in greater concentration were successively omitted so as to investigate the possible influence on the classification of components present in smaller concentrations. Thus fuzzy hierarchical clustering was performed by considering successively only seven components (mineralization omitted), six constituents (mineralization and HCOj content omitted), or only five constituents (the previous and COj content omitted), respectively. With eight components the FHDC method yielded three clusters. To characterize the three distinct classes of water found, the total hardness (in German... 

Altfaoufi a sharply defined classification of mineral waters is not possible, one which is useful, if not accurate, may be made, based upon the predominance of some constituent, or constituents, which impart to the water a well-defined therapeutic ue. A classification whi[Pg.109]

Table 3.46. Classification of natural mineral waters according to the prevailing ions...

In chemometrics we are very often dealing not with individual signals, but with sets of signals. Sets of signals are used for calibration purposes, to solve supervised and unsupervised classification problems, in mixture analysis etc. All these chemometrical techniques require uniform data presentation. The data must be organized in a matrix, i.e. for the different objects the same variables have to be considered or, in other words, each object is characterized by a signal (e.g. a spectrum). Only if all the objects are represented in the same parameter space, it is possible to apply chemometrics techniques to compare them. Consider for instance two samples of mineral water. If for one of them, the calcium and sulphate concentrations are measured, but for the second one, the pH values and the PAH s concentrations are available, there is no way of comparing these two samples. This comparison can only be done in the case, when for both samples the same sets of measurements are performed, e.g. for both samples, the pH values, and the calcium and sulphate concentrations are determined. Only in that case, each sample can be represented as a point in the three-dimensional parameter space and their mutual distances can be considered measures of similarity. 

Only the more important of the numerous publications of Fourcroy can be mentioned many are on medical subjects and he was the originator of modem pathological chemistry. He analysed many drugs and mineral waters and laid stress on the value of chemistry in medicine and pharmacy, but avoided a one-sided enthusiasm in this region. He gave a chemical classification of mineral waters into acidulous, saline, sulphurous and fermginous, each class being subdivided so as to make nine orders and describes their chemical analysis. ... 

In many countries, the recovery and composition of mineral water are controlled by the state and only a few processes for quality improvement are permitted. These are separation of iron and sulfur compounds, complete or partial removal of free carbonic acid, and addition of carbon dioxide. Mineral water is bottled directly at the place of the spring. With regard to the heavy metal content and possible contamination, limiting values have been stipulated by law. The classification of mineral water is presented in Table 23.4. 

The cooled reaction mass is extracted from the retort, cmshed and leached first with dilute mineral acid, and then with water to separate the tantalum powder from the salts. After drying and classification, the primary powder is ready for processing to sheet, rod, wire, or capacitor-grade powder. 

For a long time the structural classification of the mineral todorokite was uncertain, until Turner and Buseck [4] could demonstrate by HRTEM investigations that the crystal structure of that mineral consists of triple chains of edge-sharing octahedra, which form [3 x 3] tunnels by further corner-sharing. These tunnels are partially filled by Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+, and water (according to the chemical analysis of natural todorokites). In 1988 Post and Bish could perform a Rietveld structure determination from XRD data taken for a sample of natural todorokite [25], This diffraction study confirmed the results of Turner and Buseck. The cations... 

Ficklin, W. H., G. S. Plumlee, K. S. Smith and J. B. McHugh, 1992, Geochemical classification of mine drainages and natural drainages in mineralized areas. In Y. K. Kharaka and A. S. Maest (eds.), Water-Rock Interaction. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 381-384. 

Those minerals which are not from mercury, and those salts which are soluble in water, as alums, chalcanthum (sulphates of iron and copper), common salt, sal petrae, and some substances insoluble in water alone, as orpiment, arsenicum, sulphur and other sulphurous minerals, result from the aqueosity of sulphurs mixed with viscous earths firmly united by a fervent heat, whence they are rendered unctuous and afterward solidified by cold. The medieval chemical philosophers generally do not devote so much attention to the fundamental composition of nonmetallic minerals, and the classification here given by Richardus as to their origin is by no means in accord with others, especi-... 

Agricola divides the minerals into 1. earths, such as clays, chalks, ochres, etc. 2. stones, properly so called, gems, semiprecious stones. 3. solidified juices, (succi concreti), salt, alum, vitriols, saltpeter, etc. This is an application of the theory of the ancients that these are derived from solidified waters. 4. rocks, such as marble, serpentine, alabaster, limestone, etc., hard and not friable like the earths. 5. metals. 6. compounds, or mixtures, under which head he classes various ores of the metals, from which he recognizes that simpler constituents, as the metals, may be obtained. The fundamental basis of this classification Agricola explains in the following manner.80... 

Upon reaction with an adsorptive in aqueous solution (which then becomes an adsorbate), surface functional groups can engage in adsorption complexes, which are immobilized molecular entities comprising the adsorbate and the surface functional group to which it is bound closely [18]. A further classification of adsorption complexes can be made into inner-sphere and outer-sphere surface complexes [19]. An inner-sphere surface complex has no water molecule interposed between the surface functional group and the small ion or molecule it binds, whereas an outer-sphere surface complex has at least one such interposed water molecule. Outer-sphere surface complexes always contain solvated adsorbate ions or molecules. Ions adsorbed in surface complexes are to be distinguished from those adsorbed in the diffuse layer [18] because the former species remain immobilized on a clay mineral surface over time scales that are long when compared, e.g., with the 4-10 ps required for a diffusive step by a solvated free ion in aqueous solution [20]. Outer-sphere surface complexes formed in the interlayers of montmorillonite by Ca2+ or Mg2+ are immobile on the molecular time scale... 

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